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War of 1812

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War of 1812

The War of 1812 was fought by the United States and its allies against the United Kingdom and its allies in North America. It began when the United States declared war on Britain on 18 June 1812. Although peace terms were agreed upon in the December 1814 Treaty of Ghent, the war did not officially end until the peace treaty was ratified by the United States Congress on 17 February 1815. Anglo-American tensions stemmed from long-standing differences over territorial expansion in North America and British support for Tecumseh's confederacy, which resisted U.S. colonial settlement in the Old Northwest. In 1807, these tensions escalated after the Royal Navy began enforcing tighter restrictions on American trade with France and impressed sailors who were originally British subjects, even those who had acquired American citizenship. Opinion in the U.S. was split on how to respond, and although majorities in both the House and Senate voted for war in June 1812, they were divided along strict party lines, with the Democratic-Republican Party in favour and the Federalist Party against. News of British concessions made in an attempt to avoid war did not reach the U.S. until late July, by which time the conflict was already underway. At sea, the Royal Navy imposed an effective blockade on U.S. maritime trade, while between 1812 and 1814 British regulars and colonial militia defeated a series of American invasions in Upper Canada. The April 1814 abdication of Napoleon allowed the British to send additional forces to North America and reinforce the Royal Navy blockade, crippling the American economy. In August 1814, negotiations began in Ghent, with both sides wanting peace; the British economy had been severely impacted by the trade embargo, while the Federalists convened the Hartford Convention in December to formalize their opposition to the war. In August 1814, British troops captured Washington, before American victories at Baltimore and Plattsburgh in September ended fighting in the north. In the Southeastern United States, American forces and Indian allies defeated an anti-American faction of the Muscogee. The Treaty of Ghent was signed in December 1814, though it would be February before word reached the United States and the treaty was fully ratified. In the interim, American troops led by Andrew Jackson repulsed a major British attack on New Orleans.

Infobox

Date
18 June 1812 – 17 February 1815
Location
mw- North AmericaAtlantic OceanPacific Ocean
Result
Inconclusive[a]
Territorialchanges
Anglo-American status quo ante bellum West Florida remained under Spanish control, although its position was weakened Mobile comes under American control Tecumseh's confederacy dissolved

Tables

Casualties in the War of 1812[280] · Losses and compensation
~2,700
~2,700
Type of casualties
Killed in action and died of wounds
United States
2,260
United Kingdomand Canada
~2,700
Indigenous fighters
~1,500
~8,000
~8,000
Type of casualties
Died of disease or accident
United States
~13,000
United Kingdomand Canada
~8,000
Indigenous fighters
~8,500
~3,500
~3,500
Type of casualties
Wounded in action
United States
4,505
United Kingdomand Canada
~3,500
Indigenous fighters
Unknown
~1,000
~1,000
Type of casualties
Missing in action
United States
695
United Kingdomand Canada
~1,000
Indigenous fighters
Unknown
Type of casualties
United States
United Kingdomand Canada
Indigenous fighters
Killed in action and died of wounds
2,260
~2,700
~1,500
Died of disease or accident
~13,000
~8,000
~8,500
Wounded in action
4,505
~3,500
Unknown
Missing in action
695
~1,000
Unknown

References

  1. see Results of the War of 1812
  2. Includes 2,250 men of the Royal Navy.
  3. Includes 1,000 combat casualties on the northern front.
  4. The House declared war by 61.7% with a majority in all sections, 20 Members not voting, and the Senate was closer at 59.
  5. units raised for local service but otherwise on the same terms as regulars
  6. Hickey
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  8. The task was directed by pyrotechnic experts Lieutenants George Lacy and George Pratt of the Royal Navy.
  9. Admiralty reply to British press criticism.
  10. "They are superior to any European frigate," Humphreys wrote of the design he had in mind, "and if others should be in [
  11. With sufficient training and drilling gunnery could be improved, but there was no immediate solution for the lack of cre
  12. Admiral Warren was evidently concerned, because he circulated a standing order, on March 6, directing his commanders to
  13. Compared to other nations, the British navy had mastered the practice of employing blockades, which severely compromised
  14. The tightening grip of the British blockade was beginning to take a severe economic toll on communities throughout the c
  15. The superior force and scantlings of the American 44-gun frigates, now denounced as "disguised ships of the line," promp
  16. More significantly, if some spars are shot away on a brig because it is more difficult to wear and the brig loses the ab
  17. "The British blockade had a crushing effect on American foreign trade. "Commerce is becoming very slack," reported a res
  18. For details of the negotiations, see Samuel Flagg Bemis (1956), John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreig
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  341. Cogliano 2008, p. 234.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=pnJJ-GDktHgC&pg=PA234
  342. U.S. National Park Service
    https://www.nps.gov/articles/wedged-between-slavery-and-freedom.htm
  343. Pratt 1955, p. 138.
  344. Howe 2007, p. 74; Kohler 2013, p. 316: "While the debate about 'who won the war' continues, most historians agree that t
  345. Carroll 1997: "The War of 1812 also had an impact on the border. A decisive military victory by either the United States
  346. Kaufman 1997, pp. 110–135; Buckner 2008, pp. 47–48; Sjolander 2014.
  347. Roosevelt 1900.
  348. Sjolander 2014.
  349. Swanson 1945, p. 75; Brands 2005, p. 163; Hickey 2013.
  350. Bowman & Greenblatt 2003, p. 142; Kessel & Wooster 2005, p. 145; Howe 2007, p. 74; Thompson & Randall 2008, p. 23; Kohle
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