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Voter turnout in United States presidential elections

Updated: Wikipedia source

Voter turnout in United States presidential elections

Voter turnout in U.S. elections is the total number of votes cast by the voting age population (VAP), or more recently, the voting eligible population (VEP), divided by the entire voting eligible population. It is usually displayed as a percentage, showing which percentage of eligible voters actually voted. The historical trends in voter turnout in the United States presidential elections have been shaped by

the gradual expansion of voting rights from the initial restriction to white male property owners aged 21 or older in the early years of the country's independence to all citizens aged 18 or older in the mid-20th century; policies that have made it easier or harder for eligible people to register and vote; the competitiveness of elections; and the mobilization efforts of parties, candidates and other organizations. The composition of voter turnout has also changed with increased use of early voting and mail voting. Approximately 161 million people were registered to vote in the 2020 presidential election and 158,427,986 ballots were submitted (96.3% of registered voters). Roughly 81 million eligible voters did not cast a ballot.

Tables

· Measuring turnout
1932
1932
Election
1932
Voting-age population (VAP)
75,768,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
Turnout
39,816,522
Turnout as % of VAP
52.6%
Turnout as % of VEP
Winner votes
22,821,277
Runner-up votes
15,761,254
Winner as % of VEP
Runner-up as % of VEP
1936
1936
Election
1936
Voting-age population (VAP)
80,055,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
Turnout
45,646,817
Turnout as % of VAP
57.0%
Turnout as % of VEP
Winner votes
27,752,648
Runner-up votes
16,679,543
Winner as % of VEP
Runner-up as % of VEP
1940
1940
Election
1940
Voting-age population (VAP)
84,319,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
Turnout
49,815,312
Turnout as % of VAP
59.1%
Turnout as % of VEP
Winner votes
27,313,945
Runner-up votes
22,347,744
Winner as % of VEP
Runner-up as % of VEP
1944
1944
Election
1944
Voting-age population (VAP)
90,599,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
Turnout
48,025,684
Turnout as % of VAP
53.0%
Turnout as % of VEP
Winner votes
25,612,916
Runner-up votes
22,017,929
Winner as % of VEP
Runner-up as % of VEP
1948
1948
Election
1948
Voting-age population (VAP)
94,877,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
Turnout
48,833,680
Turnout as % of VAP
51.5%
Turnout as % of VEP
Winner votes
24,179,347
Runner-up votes
21,991,292
Winner as % of VEP
Runner-up as % of VEP
1952
1952
Election
1952
Voting-age population (VAP)
98,113,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
Turnout
61,551,919
Turnout as % of VAP
62.7%
Turnout as % of VEP
Winner votes
34,075,529
Runner-up votes
27,375,090
Winner as % of VEP
Runner-up as % of VEP
1956
1956
Election
1956
Voting-age population (VAP)
102,753,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
Turnout
62,027,040
Turnout as % of VAP
60.4%
Turnout as % of VEP
Winner votes
35,579,180
Runner-up votes
26,028,028
Winner as % of VEP
Runner-up as % of VEP
1960
1960
Election
1960
Voting-age population (VAP)
108,458,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
Turnout
68,836,385
Turnout as % of VAP
63.5%
Turnout as % of VEP
Winner votes
34,220,984
Runner-up votes
34,108,157
Winner as % of VEP
Runner-up as % of VEP
1964
1964
Election
1964
Voting-age population (VAP)
110,604,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
Turnout
70,097,935
Turnout as % of VAP
63.4%
Turnout as % of VEP
Winner votes
43,127,041
Runner-up votes
27,175,754
Winner as % of VEP
Runner-up as % of VEP
1968
1968
Election
1968
Voting-age population (VAP)
116,353,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
Turnout
73,026,831
Turnout as % of VAP
62.8%
Turnout as % of VEP
Winner votes
31,783,783
Runner-up votes
31,271,839
Winner as % of VEP
Runner-up as % of VEP
1972
1972
Election
1972
Voting-age population (VAP)
136,203,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
Turnout
77,625,152
Turnout as % of VAP
57.0%
Turnout as % of VEP
Winner votes
47,168,710
Runner-up votes
29,173,222
Winner as % of VEP
Runner-up as % of VEP
1976
1976
Election
1976
Voting-age population (VAP)
146,548,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
Turnout
81,603,346
Turnout as % of VAP
55.7%
Turnout as % of VEP
Winner votes
40,831,881
Runner-up votes
39,148,634
Winner as % of VEP
Runner-up as % of VEP
1980
1980
Election
1980
Voting-age population (VAP)
157,085,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
147,870,815
Turnout
86,496,851
Turnout as % of VAP
55.1%
Turnout as % of VEP
58.4%
Winner votes
43,903,230
Runner-up votes
35,480,115
Winner as % of VEP
27.50%
Runner-up as % of VEP
22.23%
1984
1984
Election
1984
Voting-age population (VAP)
169,963,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
167,701,904
Turnout
92,654,861
Turnout as % of VAP
54.5%
Turnout as % of VEP
55.2%
Winner votes
54,455,472
Runner-up votes
37,577,352
Winner as % of VEP
32.47%
Runner-up as % of VEP
22.41%
1988
1988
Election
1988
Voting-age population (VAP)
178,098,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
173,579,281
Turnout
91,586,725
Turnout as % of VAP
51.4%
Turnout as % of VEP
52.8%
Winner votes
48,886,597
Runner-up votes
41,809,476
Winner as % of VEP
28.16%
Runner-up as % of VEP
24.09%
1992
1992
Election
1992
Voting-age population (VAP)
185,684,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
179,655,523
Turnout
104,600,366
Turnout as % of VAP
56.3%
Turnout as % of VEP
58.2%
Winner votes
44,909,889
Runner-up votes
39,104,550
Winner as % of VEP
25.00%
Runner-up as % of VEP
21.77%
1996
1996
Election
1996
Voting-age population (VAP)
193,652,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
186,347,044
Turnout
96,389,818
Turnout as % of VAP
49.8%
Turnout as % of VEP
51.7%
Winner votes
47,401,185
Runner-up votes
39,197,469
Winner as % of VEP
25.44%
Runner-up as % of VEP
21.03%
2000
2000
Election
2000
Voting-age population (VAP)
202,609,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
194,331,436
Turnout
105,594,024
Turnout as % of VAP
52.1%
Turnout as % of VEP
54.3%
Winner votes
50,456,002
Runner-up votes
50,999,897
Winner as % of VEP
25.96%
Runner-up as % of VEP
26.24%
2004
2004
Election
2004
Voting-age population (VAP)
219,508,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
203,483,455
Turnout
122,349,480
Turnout as % of VAP
56.7%
Turnout as % of VEP
60.1%
Winner votes
62,040,610
Runner-up votes
59,028,444
Winner as % of VEP
30.49%
Runner-up as % of VEP
29.01%
2008
2008
Election
2008
Voting-age population (VAP)
225,499,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
213,313,508
Turnout
131,406,895
Turnout as % of VAP
58.3%
Turnout as % of VEP
61.6%
Winner votes
69,498,516
Runner-up votes
59,948,323
Winner as % of VEP
32.58%
Runner-up as % of VEP
28.10%
2012
2012
Election
2012
Voting-age population (VAP)
235,248,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
222,474,111
Turnout
129,139,997
Turnout as % of VAP
54.9%
Turnout as % of VEP
58.0%
Winner votes
65,915,795
Runner-up votes
60,933,504
Winner as % of VEP
29.63%
Runner-up as % of VEP
27.39%
2016
2016
Election
2016
Voting-age population (VAP)
245,502,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
230,931,921
Turnout
136,787,187
Turnout as % of VAP
55.7%
Turnout as % of VEP
59.2%
Winner votes
62,984,828
Runner-up votes
65,853,514
Winner as % of VEP
27.27%
Runner-up as % of VEP
28.55%
2020
2020
Election
2020
Voting-age population (VAP)
252,274,000
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
242,690,810
Turnout
158,427,986
Turnout as % of VAP
62.8%
Turnout as % of VEP
65.3%
Winner votes
81,283,501
Runner-up votes
74,223,975
Winner as % of VEP
33.78%
Runner-up as % of VEP
30.85%
2024* (estimated)
2024* (estimated)
Election
2024* (estimated)
Voting-age population (VAP)
264,798,961
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
244,666,890
Turnout
156,302,318
Turnout as % of VAP
59.0%
Turnout as % of VEP
63.9%
Winner votes
77,303,573
Runner-up votes
75,019,257
Winner as % of VEP
31.59%
Runner-up as % of VEP
30.66%
Election
Voting-age population (VAP)
Voting-eligible population (VEP)
Turnout
Turnout as % of VAP
Turnout as % of VEP
Winner votes
Runner-up votes
Winner as % of VEP
Runner-up as % of VEP
1932
75,768,000
39,816,522
52.6%
22,821,277
15,761,254
1936
80,055,000
45,646,817
57.0%
27,752,648
16,679,543
1940
84,319,000
49,815,312
59.1%
27,313,945
22,347,744
1944
90,599,000
48,025,684
53.0%
25,612,916
22,017,929
1948
94,877,000
48,833,680
51.5%
24,179,347
21,991,292
1952
98,113,000
61,551,919
62.7%
34,075,529
27,375,090
1956
102,753,000
62,027,040
60.4%
35,579,180
26,028,028
1960
108,458,000
68,836,385
63.5%
34,220,984
34,108,157
1964
110,604,000
70,097,935
63.4%
43,127,041
27,175,754
1968
116,353,000
73,026,831
62.8%
31,783,783
31,271,839
1972
136,203,000
77,625,152
57.0%
47,168,710
29,173,222
1976
146,548,000
81,603,346
55.7%
40,831,881
39,148,634
1980
157,085,000
147,870,815
86,496,851
55.1%
58.4%
43,903,230
35,480,115
27.50%
22.23%
1984
169,963,000
167,701,904
92,654,861
54.5%
55.2%
54,455,472
37,577,352
32.47%
22.41%
1988
178,098,000
173,579,281
91,586,725
51.4%
52.8%
48,886,597
41,809,476
28.16%
24.09%
1992
185,684,000
179,655,523
104,600,366
56.3%
58.2%
44,909,889
39,104,550
25.00%
21.77%
1996
193,652,000
186,347,044
96,389,818
49.8%
51.7%
47,401,185
39,197,469
25.44%
21.03%
2000
202,609,000
194,331,436
105,594,024
52.1%
54.3%
50,456,002
50,999,897
25.96%
26.24%
2004
219,508,000
203,483,455
122,349,480
56.7%
60.1%
62,040,610
59,028,444
30.49%
29.01%
2008
225,499,000
213,313,508
131,406,895
58.3%
61.6%
69,498,516
59,948,323
32.58%
28.10%
2012
235,248,000
222,474,111
129,139,997
54.9%
58.0%
65,915,795
60,933,504
29.63%
27.39%
2016
245,502,000
230,931,921
136,787,187
55.7%
59.2%
62,984,828
65,853,514
27.27%
28.55%
2020
252,274,000
242,690,810
158,427,986
62.8%
65.3%
81,283,501
74,223,975
33.78%
30.85%
2024* (estimated)
264,798,961
244,666,890
156,302,318
59.0%
63.9%
77,303,573
75,019,257
31.59%
30.66%
2020 voter turnout by state[12] · Turnout by U.S. state
United States
United States
State
United States
Total ballots cast
159,738,337
Voting eligible population
242,077,783
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
65.99%
Alabama
Alabama
State
Alabama
Total ballots cast
2,325,000
Voting eligible population
3,782,861
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
61.46%
Alaska
Alaska
State
Alaska
Total ballots cast
361,400
Voting eligible population
529,649
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
68.23%
Arizona
Arizona
State
Arizona
Total ballots cast
3,420,585
Voting eligible population
5,133,804
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
66.63%
Arkansas
Arkansas
State
Arkansas
Total ballots cast
1,223,675
Voting eligible population
2,178,328
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
56.17%
California
California
State
California
Total ballots cast
17,785,151
Voting eligible population
25,840,035
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
68.83%
Colorado
Colorado
State
Colorado
Total ballots cast
3,295,666
Voting eligible population
4,297,225
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
76.69%
Connecticut
Connecticut
State
Connecticut
Total ballots cast
1,861,086
Voting eligible population
2,655,214
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
70.09%
Delaware
Delaware
State
Delaware
Total ballots cast
509,241
Voting eligible population
745,131
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
68.34%
District of Columbia
District of Columbia
State
District of Columbia
Total ballots cast
346,491
Voting eligible population
503,118
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
68.87%
Florida
Florida
State
Florida
Total ballots cast
11,144,855
Voting eligible population
15,742,624
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
70.79%
Georgia
Georgia
State
Georgia
Total ballots cast
5,023,159
Voting eligible population
7,490,838
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
67.06%
Hawaii
Hawaii
State
Hawaii
Total ballots cast
579,784
Voting eligible population
1,047,466
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
55.35%
Idaho
Idaho
State
Idaho
Total ballots cast
878,527
Voting eligible population
1,352,914
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
64.94%
Illinois
Illinois
State
Illinois
Total ballots cast
6,050,000
Voting eligible population
9,095,238
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
66.52%
Indiana
Indiana
State
Indiana
Total ballots cast
3,068,542
Voting eligible population
5,025,421
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
61.06%
Iowa
Iowa
State
Iowa
Total ballots cast
1,700,130
Voting eligible population
2,360,125
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
72.04%
Kansas
Kansas
State
Kansas
Total ballots cast
1,375,125
Voting eligible population
2,112,458
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
65.10%
Kentucky
Kentucky
State
Kentucky
Total ballots cast
2,150,954
Voting eligible population
3,339,511
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
64.41%
Louisiana
Louisiana
State
Louisiana
Total ballots cast
2,169,401
Voting eligible population
3,382,286
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
64.14%
Maine
Maine
State
Maine
Total ballots cast
828,305
Voting eligible population
1,106,276
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
74.87%
Maryland
Maryland
State
Maryland
Total ballots cast
3,066,945
Voting eligible population
4,416,326
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
69.45%
Massachusetts
Massachusetts
State
Massachusetts
Total ballots cast
3,658,005
Voting eligible population
5,129,755
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
71.31%
Michigan
Michigan
State
Michigan
Total ballots cast
5,579,317
Voting eligible population
7,615,249
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
73.27%
Minnesota
Minnesota
State
Minnesota
Total ballots cast
3,292,997
Voting eligible population
4,157,411
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
79.21%
Mississippi
Mississippi
State
Mississippi
Total ballots cast
1,325,000
Voting eligible population
2,185,433
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
60.63%
Missouri
Missouri
State
Missouri
Total ballots cast
3,026,028
Voting eligible population
4,620,290
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
65.49%
Montana
Montana
State
Montana
Total ballots cast
612,075
Voting eligible population
857,955
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
71.34%
Nebraska
Nebraska
State
Nebraska
Total ballots cast
966,920
Voting eligible population
1,400,069
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
69.06%
Nevada
Nevada
State
Nevada
Total ballots cast
1,407,754
Voting eligible population
2,191,188
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
64.25%
New Hampshire
New Hampshire
State
New Hampshire
Total ballots cast
814,499
Voting eligible population
1,101,294
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
73.96%
New Jersey
New Jersey
State
New Jersey
Total ballots cast
4,635,585
Voting eligible population
6,435,019
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
72.04%
New Mexico
New Mexico
State
New Mexico
Total ballots cast
928,230
Voting eligible population
1,534,600
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
60.49%
New York
New York
State
New York
Total ballots cast
8,690,139
Voting eligible population
14,081,957
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
61.71%
North Carolina
North Carolina
State
North Carolina
Total ballots cast
5,545,848
Voting eligible population
7,811,002
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
71.00%
North Dakota
North Dakota
State
North Dakota
Total ballots cast
364,251
Voting eligible population
577,567
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
63.07%
Ohio
Ohio
State
Ohio
Total ballots cast
5,974,121
Voting eligible population
8,906,277
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
67.08%
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
State
Oklahoma
Total ballots cast
1,565,000
Voting eligible population
2,875,494
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
54.43%
Oregon
Oregon
State
Oregon
Total ballots cast
2,413,890
Voting eligible population
3,204,224
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
75.33%
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
State
Pennsylvania
Total ballots cast
6,958,551
Voting eligible population
9,950,392
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
69.93%
Rhode Island
Rhode Island
State
Rhode Island
Total ballots cast
522,488
Voting eligible population
828,194
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
63.09%
South Carolina
South Carolina
State
South Carolina
Total ballots cast
2,533,010
Voting eligible population
3,914,642
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
64.71%
South Dakota
South Dakota
State
South Dakota
Total ballots cast
427,529
Voting eligible population
651,554
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
65.62%
Tennessee
Tennessee
State
Tennessee
Total ballots cast
3,065,000
Voting eligible population
5,174,225
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
59.24%
Texas
Texas
State
Texas
Total ballots cast
11,350,000
Voting eligible population
18,982,171
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
59.79%
Utah
Utah
State
Utah
Total ballots cast
1,515,845
Voting eligible population
2,255,175
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
67.22%
Vermont
Vermont
State
Vermont
Total ballots cast
370,968
Voting eligible population
520,641
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
71.25%
Virginia
Virginia
State
Virginia
Total ballots cast
4,523,142
Voting eligible population
6,300,717
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
71.79%
Washington
Washington
State
Washington
Total ballots cast
4,116,894
Voting eligible population
5,465,496
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
75.33%
West Virginia
West Virginia
State
West Virginia
Total ballots cast
802,726
Voting eligible population
1,403,699
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
57.19%
Wisconsin
Wisconsin
State
Wisconsin
Total ballots cast
3,310,000
Voting eligible population
4,410,780
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
75.04%
Wyoming
Wyoming
State
Wyoming
Total ballots cast
278,503
Voting eligible population
430,161
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
64.74%
State
Total ballots cast
Voting eligible population
2020 general election turnoutas a percentage of VEP
United States
159,738,337
242,077,783
65.99%
Alabama
2,325,000
3,782,861
61.46%
Alaska
361,400
529,649
68.23%
Arizona
3,420,585
5,133,804
66.63%
Arkansas
1,223,675
2,178,328
56.17%
California
17,785,151
25,840,035
68.83%
Colorado
3,295,666
4,297,225
76.69%
Connecticut
1,861,086
2,655,214
70.09%
Delaware
509,241
745,131
68.34%
District of Columbia
346,491
503,118
68.87%
Florida
11,144,855
15,742,624
70.79%
Georgia
5,023,159
7,490,838
67.06%
Hawaii
579,784
1,047,466
55.35%
Idaho
878,527
1,352,914
64.94%
Illinois
6,050,000
9,095,238
66.52%
Indiana
3,068,542
5,025,421
61.06%
Iowa
1,700,130
2,360,125
72.04%
Kansas
1,375,125
2,112,458
65.10%
Kentucky
2,150,954
3,339,511
64.41%
Louisiana
2,169,401
3,382,286
64.14%
Maine
828,305
1,106,276
74.87%
Maryland
3,066,945
4,416,326
69.45%
Massachusetts
3,658,005
5,129,755
71.31%
Michigan
5,579,317
7,615,249
73.27%
Minnesota
3,292,997
4,157,411
79.21%
Mississippi
1,325,000
2,185,433
60.63%
Missouri
3,026,028
4,620,290
65.49%
Montana
612,075
857,955
71.34%
Nebraska
966,920
1,400,069
69.06%
Nevada
1,407,754
2,191,188
64.25%
New Hampshire
814,499
1,101,294
73.96%
New Jersey
4,635,585
6,435,019
72.04%
New Mexico
928,230
1,534,600
60.49%
New York
8,690,139
14,081,957
61.71%
North Carolina
5,545,848
7,811,002
71.00%
North Dakota
364,251
577,567
63.07%
Ohio
5,974,121
8,906,277
67.08%
Oklahoma
1,565,000
2,875,494
54.43%
Oregon
2,413,890
3,204,224
75.33%
Pennsylvania
6,958,551
9,950,392
69.93%
Rhode Island
522,488
828,194
63.09%
South Carolina
2,533,010
3,914,642
64.71%
South Dakota
427,529
651,554
65.62%
Tennessee
3,065,000
5,174,225
59.24%
Texas
11,350,000
18,982,171
59.79%
Utah
1,515,845
2,255,175
67.22%
Vermont
370,968
520,641
71.25%
Virginia
4,523,142
6,300,717
71.79%
Washington
4,116,894
5,465,496
75.33%

References

  1. The Right to Vote: the Contested History of Democracy in the United States
  2. Mobilization, participation, and democracy in America
    https://archive.org/details/mobilizationpart0000rose
  3. www.fec.gov
    https://www.fec.gov/documents/4227/federalelections2020.pdf
  4. electionlab.mit.edu
    https://electionlab.mit.edu/articles/medsl-explains-voter-turnout
  5. The American Political Science Review
    https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003055400400134
  6. "Denominator – United States Elections Project"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20211207225620/http://www.electproject.org/home/voter-turnout/faq/denominator
  7. "» United States Voter Turnout UF Election Lab"
    https://election.lab.ufl.edu/voter-turnout/
  8. The American PresidencyProject
    https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/statistics/data/voter-turnout-in-presidential-elections
  9. national-1789-present – United States Elections Project Archived July 25, 2014, at the Wayback Machine These numbers are
    http://www.electproject.org/national-1789-present
  10. Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections
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  11. "2024 General Election Turnout UF Election Lab"
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  12. "1980–2022 General Election Turnout Rates (v1.0) UF Election Lab"
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  13. See "National Turnout Rates, 1787–2018" (United States Election Project)
    https://www.electproject.org/election-data/voter-turnout-data
  14. The right to vote : the contested history of democracy in the United States
    https://archive.org/details/righttovote00alex
  15. Engerman, pp. 8–9
  16. Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People
    https://books.google.com/books?id=FGSQOiy6uZUC&pg=PT337
  17. William G. Shade, "The Second Party System". in Paul Kleppner, et al. Evolution of American Electoral Systems (1983) pp.
  18. Engerman, p. 35. Table 1
  19. The Anti-Masonic Party in the United States: 1826-1843
    https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt130j7wd
  20. North Jersey Legacies: Hidden History from the Gateway to the Skylands
  21. USA Today
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  22. Justia Law
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  23. Pew Research Center
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  26. OAH Magazine of History
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  28. Statista
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  29. US Census Bureau
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  30. Social Indicators Research
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  31. econofact.org
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  32. The Social Science Journal
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  33. APA Monitor
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  35. CNN
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  36. Stanford Social Innovation Review
    http://ssir.org/articles/entry/do_we_actually_want_higher_youth_voter_turnout
  37. Electoral Studies
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  38. Rutgers University Center for American Women and Politics
    http://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/sites/default/files/resources/genderdiff.pdf
  39. Washington Post
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  40. "Study: Non-Voting Felons Increasing" Archived June 14, 2025, at the Wayback Machine, ABC News, January 6, 2006.
    https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/story?id=121724
  41. The American Political Science Review
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  42. www.electproject.org
    http://www.electproject.org/2004g
  43. www.electproject.org
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  44. The Center for Election Innovation & Research
    https://electioninnovation.org/research/voting-before-election-day-resources/use-methods-voting-before-election-day/
  45. The Center for Election Innovation & Research
    https://electioninnovation.org/research/voting-before-election-day-resources/use-methods-voting-before-election-day/
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