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Vietnam War

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Vietnam War

The Vietnam War (1 November 1955 – 30 April 1975) was an armed conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia fought between North Vietnam (Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and South Vietnam (Republic of Vietnam) and their allies. North Vietnam was supported by the Soviet Union and China, while South Vietnam was supported by the United States and other anti-communist nations. The conflict was the second of the Indochina wars and a proxy war of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and US. The Vietnam War was one of the postcolonial wars of national liberation, a theater in the Cold War, and a civil war, with civil warfare a defining feature from the outset. Direct US military involvement escalated from 1965 until its withdrawal in 1973. The fighting spilled into the Laotian and Cambodian Civil Wars, which ended with all three countries becoming communist in 1975. After the defeat of the French Union in the First Indochina War that began in 1946, Vietnam gained independence in the 1954 Geneva Conference but was divided in two at the 17th parallel: the Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, took control of North Vietnam, while the US assumed financial and military support for South Vietnam, led by Ngo Dinh Diem. The North Vietnamese supplied and directed the Viet Cong (VC), a common front of dissidents in the south which intensified a guerrilla war from 1957. In 1958, North Vietnam invaded Laos, establishing the Ho Chi Minh trail to supply the VC. By 1963, the north had covertly sent 40,000 soldiers of its People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), armed with Soviet and Chinese weapons, to fight in the insurgency in the south. President John F. Kennedy increased US involvement from 900 military advisors in 1960 to 16,000 in 1963 and sent more aid to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), which failed to produce results. In 1963, Diem was killed in a US-backed military coup, which added to the south's instability. Following the Gulf of Tonkin incident in 1964, the US Congress passed a resolution that gave President Lyndon B. Johnson authority to increase military presence without declaring war. Johnson launched a bombing campaign of the north and sent combat troops, dramatically increasing deployment to 184,000 by 1966, and 536,000 by 1969. US forces relied on air supremacy and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations in rural areas. In 1968, North Vietnam launched the Tet Offensive, which was a tactical defeat but convinced many Americans the war could not be won. Johnson's successor, Richard Nixon, began "Vietnamization" from 1969, which saw the conflict fought by an expanded ARVN while US forces withdrew. The 1970 Cambodian coup d'état resulted in a PAVN invasion and US–ARVN counter-invasion, escalating its civil war. US troops had mostly withdrawn from Vietnam by 1972, and the 1973 Paris Peace Accords saw the rest leave. The accords were broken and fighting continued until the 1975 spring offensive and fall of Saigon to the PAVN, marking the war's end. North and South Vietnam were reunified in 1976. The war exacted an enormous cost: estimates of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed range from 970,000 to 3 million. Some 275,000–310,000 Cambodians, 20,000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 US service members died. Its end would precipitate the Vietnamese boat people and the larger Indochina refugee crisis, which saw millions leave Indochina, of which about 250,000 perished at sea. 20% of South Vietnam's jungle was sprayed with toxic herbicides, which led to significant health problems. The Khmer Rouge carried out the Cambodian genocide, and the Cambodian–Vietnamese War began in 1978. In response, China invaded Vietnam, with border conflicts lasting until 1991. Within the US, the war gave rise to Vietnam syndrome, an aversion to American overseas military involvement, which, with the Watergate scandal, contributed to the crisis of confidence that affected the United States throughout the 1970s.

Infobox

Date
1 November 1955[A 1] – 30 April 1975(19 years, 5 months and 29 days)
Location
South Vietnam North Vietnam Laos Cambodia South China Sea Gulf of Thailand (spillover conflict in Thailand and China)
Result
North Vietnamese victory
Territorialchanges
Reunification of North Vietnam and South Vietnam into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in 1976Chinese control of the Paracel Islands

Tables

Military deaths (1955–1975) · Casualties
1956–1959
1956–1959
Year
1956–1959
US
4
South Vietnam
n.a.
1960
1960
Year
1960
US
5
South Vietnam
2,223
1961
1961
Year
1961
US
16
South Vietnam
4,004
1962
1962
Year
1962
US
53
South Vietnam
4,457
1963
1963
Year
1963
US
122
South Vietnam
5,665
1964
1964
Year
1964
US
216
South Vietnam
7,457
1965
1965
Year
1965
US
1,928
South Vietnam
11,242
1966
1966
Year
1966
US
6,350
South Vietnam
11,953
1967
1967
Year
1967
US
11,363
South Vietnam
12,716
1968
1968
Year
1968
US
16,899
South Vietnam
27,915
1969
1969
Year
1969
US
11,780
South Vietnam
21,833
1970
1970
Year
1970
US
6,173
South Vietnam
23,346
1971
1971
Year
1971
US
2,414
South Vietnam
22,738
1972
1972
Year
1972
US
759
South Vietnam
39,587
1973
1973
Year
1973
US
68
South Vietnam
27,901
1974
1974
Year
1974
US
1
South Vietnam
31,219
1975
1975
Year
1975
US
62
South Vietnam
n.a.
After 1975
After 1975
Year
After 1975
US
7
South Vietnam
n.a.
Total
Total
Year
Total
US
58,220
South Vietnam
>254,256
Year
US
South Vietnam
1956–1959
4
n.a.
1960
5
2,223
1961
16
4,004
1962
53
4,457
1963
122
5,665
1964
216
7,457
1965
1,928
11,242
1966
6,350
11,953
1967
11,363
12,716
1968
16,899
27,915
1969
11,780
21,833
1970
6,173
23,346
1971
2,414
22,738
1972
759
39,587
1973
68
27,901
1974
1
31,219
1975
62
n.a.
After 1975
7
n.a.
Total
58,220
>254,256
US expenditures in South Vietnam (1953–74)Direct costs only[374] · Aftermath › In the United States › Financial cost
$111 billion
$111 billion
Military costs
$111 billion
Military aid
$16 billion
Economic aid
$7 billion
Total
$135 billion
Total (2015 dollars)
$1 trillion
Military costs
Military aid
Economic aid
Total
Total (2015 dollars)
$111 billion
$16 billion
$7 billion
$135 billion
$1 trillion

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  1. Due to the war's complexity and the various actors involved, there is no clear consensus on its exact starting date. In
  2. 1955–1963
  3. 1963–1969
  4. 1964–1968
  5. According to Hanoi's official history, the Viet Cong was a branch of the People's Army of Vietnam.
  6. Upper figure initial estimate, later thought to be inflated by at least 30% (lower figure)
  7. The figures of 58,220 and 303,644 for US deaths and wounded come from the Department of Defense Statistical Information
  8. Prior to this, the Military Assistance Advisory Group, Indochina (with an authorized strength of 128 men) was set up in
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  415. Science
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  419. "50 years later, Vietnam's environment still bears the scars of war – and signals a dark future for Gaza and Ukraine"
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  420. Roberts 2005, p. 380In his 234-page judgment, the judge observed: "Despite the fact that Congress and the President were
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  428. Not A Gentleman's War: An Inside View of Junior Officers in the Vietnam War
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