Topzle Topzle

Uranium

Updated: Wikipedia source

Uranium

Uranium is a chemical element; it has symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a silvery-grey metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium radioactively decays, usually by emitting an alpha particle. The half-life of this decay varies between 159,200 and 4.5 billion years for different isotopes, making them useful for dating the age of the Earth. The most common isotopes in natural uranium are uranium-238 (which has 146 neutrons and accounts for over 99% of uranium on Earth) and uranium-235 (which has 143 neutrons). Uranium has the highest atomic weight of the primordially occurring elements. Its density is about 70% higher than that of lead and slightly lower than that of gold or tungsten. It occurs naturally in low concentrations of a few parts per million in soil, rock and water, and is commercially extracted from uranium-bearing minerals such as uraninite. Many contemporary uses of uranium exploit its unique nuclear properties. Uranium is used in nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons because it is the only naturally occurring element with a fissile isotope – uranium-235 – present in non-trace amounts. However, because of the low abundance of uranium-235 in natural uranium (which is overwhelmingly uranium-238), uranium needs to undergo enrichment so that enough uranium-235 is present. Uranium-238 is fissionable by fast neutrons and is fertile, meaning it can be transmuted to fissile plutonium-239 in a nuclear reactor. Another fissile isotope, uranium-233, can be produced from natural thorium and is studied for future industrial use in nuclear technology. Uranium-238 has a small probability for spontaneous fission or even induced fission with fast neutrons; uranium-235, and to a lesser degree uranium-233, have a much higher fission cross-section for slow neutrons. In sufficient concentration, these isotopes maintain a sustained nuclear chain reaction. This generates the heat in nuclear power reactors and produces the fissile material for nuclear weapons. The primary civilian use for uranium harnesses the heat energy to produce electricity. Depleted uranium (238U) is used in kinetic energy penetrators and armor plating. The 1789 discovery of uranium in the mineral pitchblende is credited to Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who named the new element after the recently discovered planet Uranus. Eugène-Melchior Péligot was the first person to isolate the metal, and its radioactive properties were discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel. Research by Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, Enrico Fermi and others, such as J. Robert Oppenheimer starting in 1934 led to its use as a fuel in the nuclear power industry and in Little Boy, the first nuclear weapon used in war. An ensuing arms race during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union produced tens of thousands of nuclear weapons that used uranium metal and uranium-derived plutonium-239. Dismantling of these weapons and related nuclear facilities is carried out within various nuclear disarmament programs and costs billions of dollars. Weapon-grade uranium obtained from nuclear weapons is diluted with uranium-238 and reused as fuel for nuclear reactors. Spent nuclear fuel forms radioactive waste, which mostly consists of uranium-238 and poses a significant health threat and environmental impact.

Infobox

Pronunciation
/jʊˈreɪniəm/ ⓘ (yuu-RAY-nee-əm)
Appearance
silvery gray metallic; corrodes to a spalling black oxide coat in air
Atomic number (Z)
92
Group
f-block groups (no number)
Period
period 7
Block
f-block
Electron configuration
[Rn] 5f3 6d1 7s2
Electrons per shell
2, 8, 18, 32, 21, 9, 2
Phase at STP
solid
Melting point
1405.3 K (1132.2 °C, 2070 °F)
Boiling point
4404 K (4131 °C, 7468 °F)
Density (at 20° C)
19.050 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.)
17.3 g/cm3
Heat of fusion
9.14 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization
417.1 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity
27.665 J/(mol·K)
P (Pa)
Vapor pressure P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k at T (K) 2325 2564 2859 3234 3727 4402
at T (K)
2325
Oxidation states
common: 6 −1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Electronegativity
Pauling scale: 1.38
Ionization energies
1st: 597.6 kJ/mol 2nd: 1420 kJ/mol
Atomic radius
empirical: 156 pm
Covalent radius
196±7 pm
Van der Waals radius
186 pm
Natural occurrence
primordial
Crystal structure
orthorhombic (oS4)
Lattice constants
a = 285.35 pmb = 586.97 pmc = 495.52 pm (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion
15.46×10−6/K (at 20 °C)[a]
Thermal conductivity
27.5 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity
0.280 µΩ⋅m (at 0 °C)
Magnetic ordering
paramagnetic
Young's modulus
208 GPa
Shear modulus
111 GPa
Bulk modulus
100 GPa
Speed of sound thin rod
3155 m/s (at 20 °C)
Poisson ratio
0.23
Vickers hardness
1960–2500 MPa
Brinell hardness
2350–3850 MPa
CAS Number
7440-61-1
Naming
after planet Uranus, itself named after Greek god of the sky Uranus
Discovery
Martin Heinrich Klaproth (1789)
First isolation
Eugène-Melchior Péligot (1841)
Main isotopes
mw- body Main isotopes Decay Isotope abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct 232U synth 68.9 y α 228Th SF – 233U trace 1.592×105 y α 229Th SF – 234U 0.005% 2.455×105 y α 230Th SF – 235U 0.720% 7.04×108 y α 231Th SF – 236U trace 2.342×107 y α 232Th SF – 238U 99.3% 4.463×109 y α 234Th SF – β−β− 238Pu
232U
synth
233U
trace
234U
0.005%
235U
0.720%
236U
trace
238U
99.3%

Tables

at T (K)
at T (K)
P (Pa)
at T (K)
1
2325
10
2564
100
2859
1 k
3234
10 k
3727
100 k
4402
P (Pa)
1
10
100
1 k
10 k
100 k
at T (K)
2325
2564
2859
3234
3727
4402
mw- Isotope
mw- Isotope
Main isotopes
mw- Isotope
Main isotopes
abun­dance
Main isotopes
half-life (t1/2)
Decay
mode
Decay
pro­duct
232U
232U
Main isotopes
232U
Main isotopes
synth
Main isotopes
68.9 y
Decay
α
Decay
228Th
SF
SF
Main isotopes
SF
Main isotopes
–
233U
233U
Main isotopes
233U
Main isotopes
trace
Main isotopes
1.592×105 y
Decay
α
Decay
229Th
SF
SF
Main isotopes
SF
Main isotopes
–
234U
234U
Main isotopes
234U
Main isotopes
0.005%
Main isotopes
2.455×105 y
Decay
α
Decay
230Th
SF
SF
Main isotopes
SF
Main isotopes
–
235U
235U
Main isotopes
235U
Main isotopes
0.720%
Main isotopes
7.04×108 y
Decay
α
Decay
231Th
SF
SF
Main isotopes
SF
Main isotopes
–
236U
236U
Main isotopes
236U
Main isotopes
trace
Main isotopes
2.342×107 y
Decay
α
Decay
232Th
SF
SF
Main isotopes
SF
Main isotopes
–
238U
238U
Main isotopes
238U
Main isotopes
99.3%
Main isotopes
4.463×109 y
Decay
α
Decay
234Th
SF
SF
Main isotopes
SF
Main isotopes
–
β−β−
β−β−
Main isotopes
β−β−
Main isotopes
238Pu
Main isotopes
Decay
mw- Isotope
abun­dance
half-life (t1/2)
mode
pro­duct
232U
synth
68.9 y
α
228Th
SF
–
233U
trace
1.592×105 y
α
229Th
SF
–
234U
0.005%
2.455×105 y
α
230Th
SF
–
235U
0.720%
7.04×108 y
α
231Th
SF
–
236U
trace
2.342×107 y
α
232Th
SF
–
238U
99.3%
4.463×109 y
α
234Th
SF
–
β−β−
238Pu
Pourbaix diagrams[110] · Compounds › Oxidation states and oxides › Carbonates
Uranium in a non-complexing aqueous medium(e.g. perchloric acid/sodium hydroxide).
Uranium in a non-complexing aqueous medium(e.g. perchloric acid/sodium hydroxide).
Col 1
Uranium in a non-complexing aqueous medium(e.g. perchloric acid/sodium hydroxide).
Col 2
Uranium in carbonate solution
Relative concentrations of the different chemical forms of uranium in a non-complexing aqueous medium(e.g. perchloric acid/sodium hydroxide).
Relative concentrations of the different chemical forms of uranium in a non-complexing aqueous medium(e.g. perchloric acid/sodium hydroxide).
Col 1
Relative concentrations of the different chemical forms of uranium in a non-complexing aqueous medium(e.g. perchloric acid/sodium hydroxide).
Col 2
Relative concentrations of the different chemical forms of uranium in an aqueous carbonate solution.
Uranium in a non-complexing aqueous medium(e.g. perchloric acid/sodium hydroxide).
Uranium in carbonate solution
Relative concentrations of the different chemical forms of uranium in a non-complexing aqueous medium(e.g. perchloric acid/sodium hydroxide).
Relative concentrations of the different chemical forms of uranium in an aqueous carbonate solution.

References

  1. The thermal expansion is anisotropic: the coefficients for each crystal axis (at 20 °C) are αa = 25.27×10−6/K, αb = 0.76
  2. "Standard Atomic Weights: Uranium"
    https://www.ciaaw.org/uranium.htm
  3. Pure and Applied Chemistry
    https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/pac-2019-0603/html
  4. Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements
  5. Chemistry (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany). 25 (50): 11772–11784
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6772027
  6. J. Am. Chem. Soc
    https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.2c06519
  7. J. Am. Chem. Soc
    https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja406791t
  8. Chemistry of the Elements
    https://doi.org/10.1016%2FC2009-0-30414-6
  9. Chinese Physics C
    https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2020/NUBASE2020.pdf
  10. Encyclopaedia Britannica
    https://www.britannica.com/science/uranium
  11. Emsley 2001, p. 479.
  12. The McGraw-Hill Science and Technology Encyclopedia
    https://archive.org/details/mcgrawhillconcis00newy
  13. The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
    http://www-d0.fnal.gov/hardware/cal/lvps_info/engineering/elements.pdf
  14. "Uranium"
    http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/92/uranium
  15. "Lead"
    http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/82/lead
  16. "Tungsten"
    http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/74/tungsten
  17. "Gold"
    http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/79/gold
  18. Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110727194715/http://www.answers.com/uranium
  19. Handbook of radioactivity analysis
  20. www.nrc.gov
    https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/glossary/fissionable-material
  21. Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence, and Security
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110727194715/http://www.answers.com/uranium
  22. Applications of Texture Analysis
    https://books.google.com/books?id=KWGu-LYMYjMC&pg=PA108
  23. The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements
    https://web.archive.org/web/20160307160941/http://radchem.nevada.edu/classes/rdch710/files/Thorium.pdf
  24. Depleted Uranium in the Gulf (II)
    http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/du_ii/du_ii_tabe.htm#TAB_E_Development_of_DU_Munitions
  25. Emsley 2001, p. 480.
  26. "Nuclear Weapon Design"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20081226091803/https://fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/design.htm
  27. "Statement regarding the Good Morning America broadcast," The Homer Laughlin China Co. Archived 1 April 2012 at the Wayb
    http://www.hlchina.com/gmastatement.html
  28. "Dial R for radioactive – 12 July 1997 – New Scientist"
    https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg15520902.900-dial-r-for-radioactive.html
  29. Atomic Heritage Foundation
    https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/uranium-mining
  30. "EPA Facts about Uranium"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20141129061718/http://www.epa.gov/superfund/health/contaminants/radiation/pdfs/Uranium%20Fact%20Sheet%20final.pdf
  31. ORAU Museum of Radiation and Radioactivity
    https://orau.org/health-physics-museum/collection/consumer/ceramics/uranium-containing-dentures.html
  32. Emsley 2001, p. 482.
  33. Emsley 2001, p. 477.
  34. Chemische Annalen für die Freunde der Naturlehre, Arzneygelahrtheit, Haushaltungskunst und Manufacturen
    https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/en/view/bsb10072268?page=408,409
  35. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110727194715/http://www.answers.com/uranium
  36. Foundations of Chemistry
    https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5
  37. Annales de chimie et de physique
    http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k34746s/f4.table
  38. Emsley 2001, p. 478.
  39. "The Electric Journal"
    https://books.google.com/books?id=-5c7AQAAMAAJ&q=ferrouranium+artillery&pg=PA367
  40. Preparation of ferro-uranium
    https://books.google.com/books?id=kfvBmuFOAiEC&pg=PA8
  41. Seaborg 1968, p. 773.
  42. "Artificial radioactivity produced by neutron bombardment: Nobel Lecture"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20180809111423/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.pdf
  43. Nuovo Saggiatore
    https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0309046
  44. "Hahn, Meitner e la teoria della fissione"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20090325120427/http://www.brera.unimi.it/SISFA/atti/2003/312-321NigroBari.pdf
  45. "Elementymology & Elements Multidict"
    http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Pu
  46. Nature
    http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Begin/Nature_Meitner.shtml
  47. www.aps.org
    https://web.archive.org/web/20180719113725/https://www.aps.org/programs/outreach/history/historicsites/nier.cfm
  48. "Wissenschaftsgeschichte: Hitlers Atombombe – warum es sie nicht gab – Spektrum der Wissenschaft"
    https://www.spektrum.de/news/hitlers-atombombe-warum-es-sie-nicht-gab/1423529
  49. large.stanford.edu
    http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2013/ph241/masters1/
  50. Science
    https://pbadupws.nrc.gov/docs/ML0533/ML053340429.pdf
  51. Groves 1962, pp. 180–184.
  52. Helmreich, J.E. Gathering Rare Ores: The Diplomacy of Uranium Acquisition, 1943–1954, Princeton UP, 1986: ch. 10 ISBN 0-
  53. "Reactors Designed by Argonne National Laboratory: Fast Reactor Technology"
    http://www.ne.anl.gov/About/reactors/frt.shtml
  54. "History and Success of Argonne National Laboratory: Part 1"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20060926155637/http://web.em.doe.gov/tie/history.html
  55. "Reactors Designed by Argonne National Laboratory: Light Water Reactor Technology Development"
    http://www.ne.anl.gov/About/reactors/lwr3.shtml#fragment-5
  56. BBC News
    http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/17/newsid_3147000/3147145.stm
  57. "STR (Submarine Thermal Reactor) in "Reactors Designed by Argonne National Laboratory: Light Water Reactor Technology Development""
    http://www.ne.anl.gov/About/reactors/lwr3.shtml#fragment-2
  58. Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management
    https://web.archive.org/web/20040603085718/http://www.ocrwm.doe.gov/factsheets/doeymp0010.shtml
  59. Earth and Planetary Science Letters
    https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002E&PSL.203.1047W
  60. Time
    https://web.archive.org/web/20090328130544/http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1887705,00.html
  61. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine
    https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00043764-200003000-00008
  62. American Journal of Public Health
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3222290
  63. The British Journal of Radiology
    https://doi.org/10.1259%2Fbjr.70.832.9166072
  64. Russia's Nuclear Fuel Cycle. World Nuclear Association. Updated December 2021.
    https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-o-s/russia-nuclear-fuel-cycle.aspx
  65. Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements
    https://books.google.com/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&dq=%2248th+most+abundant+element%22&pg=PA480
  66. New Scientist
    https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18725103-700-first-measurements-of-earths-core-radioactivity/
  67. physicsworld.com
    https://physicsworld.com/a/potassium-40-heats-up-earths-core/
  68. Schnug, E., Sun, Y., Zhang, L., Windmann, H., Lottermoser, B.G., Ulrich, A. E., Bol, R., Makeawa, M., and Haneklaus, S.H
  69. "History/Origin of Chemicals"
    https://herschel.jpl.nasa.gov/chemicalOrigins.shtml
  70. Reviews of Modern Physics
    https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.29.547
  71. Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
  72. Annals of Science
    https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033797800200441
  73. Science Advances
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4783122
  74. Ore Geology Reviews
    https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005OGRv...26..198M
  75. PLOS ONE
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4395306
  76. Environmental Science & Technology
    https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005EnST...39.5657R
  77. Environmental Science & Technology
    https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.est.9b05285
  78. Emsley 2001, pp. 476 and 482.
  79. Citrobacter
    https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992Sci...257..782M
  80. in situ
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC201226
  81. Microbiology
    https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fmic.0.037143-0
  82. Sphingomonas
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2546639
  83. "World Uranium Mining"
    https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/world-uranium-mining-production.aspx
  84. Seaborg 1968, p. 774.
  85. "Athabasca Basin, Saskatchewan"
    http://www.investcom.com/moneyshow/uranium_athabasca.htm
  86. Hydrometallurgy in extraction processes
    https://books.google.com/books?id=F7p7W1rykpwC&pg=PA75
  87. Our World in Data
    https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/uranium-production
  88. www.world-nuclear.org
    https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/uranium-resources/supply-of-uranium.aspx
  89. "Global Uranium Resources to Meet Projected Demand"
    http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/2006/uranium_resources.html
  90. "Uranium Mining and Processing in South Australia"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20120106005859/http://www.uraniumsa.org/processing/processing.htm
  91. Central African Republic News
    https://www.reuters.com/article/idAFL5E7M34T920111103
  92. World-nuclear.org
    https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/uranium-resources/military-warheads-as-a-source-of-nuclear-fuel.aspx
  93. "Megatons to Megawatts"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20080716044207/http://www.usec.com/megatonstomegawatts.htm
  94. "Uranium recovery from Seawater"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20091017081215/http://www.jaea.go.jp/jaeri/english/ff/ff43/topics.html
  95. "How long will nuclear energy last?"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20070410165316/http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/cohen.html
  96. The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering
    https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984CJChE..62..559T
  97. "ORNL technology moves scientists closer to extracting uranium from seawater"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20120825192521/http://www.ornl.gov/info/press_releases/get_press_release.cfm?ReleaseNumber=mr20120821-00
  98. "Fueling nuclear power with seawater"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20120825155837/http://www.pnnl.gov/news/release.aspx?id=938
  99. "NUEXCO Exchange Value (Monthly Uranium Spot)"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20071212170510/http://www.uranium.info/prices/monthly.html
  100. "World Uranium Production"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20070227140531/http://www.uxc.com/fuelcycle/uranium/production-uranium.html
  101. Mithridates.blogspot.com
    https://web.archive.org/web/20100304185144/http://www.pagef30.com/2008/07/kazakhstan-to-surpass-canada-as-worlds.html
  102. Zaman.com.tr
    https://web.archive.org/web/20090113013838/http://www.zaman.com.tr/haber.do?haberno=717292
  103. www.world-nuclear.org
    https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/in-situ-leach-mining-of-uranium.aspx
  104. The New York Times
    https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=hbVWAAAAIBAJ&pg=7276%2C235261
  105. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
    https://news.mit.edu/2007/fuel-supply
  106. Scientific American
    https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980SciAm.242a..66D
  107. The periodic table : nature's building blocks: an introduction to the naturally occurring elements, their origins and their uses
    https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1223058470
  108. Seaborg 1968, p. 779.
  109. "Chemical Forms of Uranium"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20060922180607/http://web.ead.anl.gov/uranium/guide/ucompound/forms/index.cfm
  110. Seaborg 1968, p. 778.
  111. Puigdomenech, Ignasi (2004) Hydra/Medusa Chemical Equilibrium Database and Plotting Software. KTH Royal Institute of Tec
    https://www.kth.se/che/medusa/chemeq-1.369367
  112. Seaborg 1968, p. 782.
  113. Seaborg 1968, p. 780.
  114. Concepts of Modern Physics
    https://web.archive.org/web/20161004204701/http://phy240.ahepl.org/Concepts_of_Modern_Physics_by_Beiser.pdf
  115. The Astrophysical Journal
    https://arxiv.org/abs/0904.3105
  116. The occurrence of plutonium-244 as a primordial nuclide is disputed, though some reports of its detection have also been
  117. Physical Review C
    https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PhRvC..85a5801L
  118. Nature Communications
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4309418
  119. At. Data Nucl. Data Tables
    https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002ADNDT..80...83T
  120. Applied Radiation and Isotopes
    https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.apradiso.2013.11.020
  121. Near Term and Promising Long Term Options for the Deployment of Thorium Based Nuclear Energy
    https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/TE-2009web.pdf
  122. Ornl-6952
    http://moltensalt.org/references/static/downloads/pdf/ORNL-6952.pdf
  123. Archaeological Chemistry
  124. Physical Review Letters
    https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.126.152502
  125. Physical Review Letters
    https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/197980/1/PhysRevLett.130.132502.pdf
  126. Analytical Chemistry
    https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325135604
  127. N
    https://lup.lub.lu.se/record/8311218
  128. "Uranium Enrichment"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20070124232415/http://web.ead.anl.gov/uranium/guide/depletedu/enrich/index.cfm
  129. "Depleted Uranium: a by-product of the Nuclear Chain"
    https://archive.today/20130113114319/http://www.wise-uranium.org/dhap991.html
  130. Dye Laser Principles
    https://web.archive.org/web/20100917020215/http://www.opticsjournal.com/dlp.htm
  131. "Radionuclide Basics: Uranium"
    https://www.epa.gov/radiation/radionuclide-basics-uranium
  132. "ToxFAQ for Uranium"
    https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxFAQs/ToxFAQsDetails.aspx?faqid=439&toxid=77
  133. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
    https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0650.html
  134. Metalloproteomics
    https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/609844907
  135. Busby, C. and Schnug, E. (2008). "Advanced biochemical and biophysical aspects of uranium contamination". In: De Kok, L.
  136. Environmental Science & Technology
    https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005EnST...39.5015F
  137. The Science of the Total Environment
    https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022ScTEn.82553947G
  138. Chemosphere
    https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Chmsp.30836278P
  139. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews
    http://www.dmzhawaii.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/health-overview-04.pdf
  140. "2. Relevance to Public Health"
    https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp150-c2.pdf
  141. Environ Health
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1242351
  142. Toxicology and Industrial Health
    https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001ToxIH..17..180A
  143. Epidemiology
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5540354
  144. "Public Health Statement for Uranium"
    https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp150-c1-b.pdf
  145. Radon Exposures to Workers at the Fernald Feed Materials Production Center. Page reviewed: April 8, 2020. U.S. National
    https://web.archive.org/web/20121023194201/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pgms/worknotify/fernald.html
  146. Chart of the Nuclides, US Atomic Energy Commission 1968
  147. Medical Toxicology
    https://books.google.com/books?id=qDf3AO8nILoC&pg=PA1468
  148. "Radiation Fact Sheets #27, Uranium (U)"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110928164044/http://www.doh.wa.gov/ehp/rp/factsheets/factsheets-htm/fs27uran.htm
Image
Source: —
Tip: Wheel or +/− to zoom, drag to pan, Esc to close.