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Star

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Star

A star is a luminous spheroid of plasma held together by self-gravity. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked eye at night; their immense distances from Earth make them appear as fixed points of light. The most prominent stars have been categorised into constellations and asterisms, and many of the brightest stars have proper names. Astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations. The observable universe contains an estimated 1022 to 1024 stars. Only about 4,000 of these stars are visible to the naked eye—all within the Milky Way galaxy. A star's life begins with the gravitational collapse of a gaseous nebula of material largely comprising hydrogen, helium, and traces of heavier elements. Its total mass mainly determines its evolution and eventual fate. A star shines for most of its active life due to the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium in its core. This process releases energy that traverses the star's interior and radiates into outer space. At the end of a star's lifetime, fusion ceases and its core becomes a stellar remnant: a white dwarf, a neutron star, or—if it is sufficiently massive—a black hole. Stellar nucleosynthesis in stars or their remnants creates almost all naturally occurring chemical elements heavier than lithium. Stellar mass loss or supernova explosions return chemically enriched material to the interstellar medium. These elements are then recycled into new stars. Astronomers can determine stellar properties—including mass, age, metallicity (chemical composition), variability, distance, and motion through space—by carrying out observations of a star's apparent brightness, spectrum, and changes in its position in the sky over time. Stars can form orbital systems with other astronomical objects, as in planetary systems and star systems with two or more stars. When two such stars orbit closely, their gravitational interaction can significantly impact their evolution. Stars often form part of much larger gravitationally bound structures, such as star clusters and galaxies.

Tables

Lifetimes of stages of stellar evolution in billions of years[132] · Characteristics › Age
1.0
1.0
Initial Mass (M☉)
1.0
Main Sequence
9.33
Subgiant
2.57
First Red Giant
0.76
Core He Burning
0.13
1.6
1.6
Initial Mass (M☉)
1.6
Main Sequence
2.28
Subgiant
0.03
First Red Giant
0.12
Core He Burning
0.13
2.0
2.0
Initial Mass (M☉)
2.0
Main Sequence
1.20
Subgiant
0.01
First Red Giant
0.02
Core He Burning
0.28
5.0
5.0
Initial Mass (M☉)
5.0
Main Sequence
0.10
Subgiant
0.0004
First Red Giant
0.0003
Core He Burning
0.02
Initial Mass (M☉)
Main Sequence
Subgiant
First Red Giant
Core He Burning
1.0
9.33
2.57
0.76
0.13
1.6
2.28
0.03
0.12
0.13
2.0
1.20
0.01
0.02
0.28
5.0
0.10
0.0004
0.0003
0.02
Number of stars brighter than magnitude · Radiation › Magnitude
0
0
Apparentmagnitude
0
Number of stars
4
1
1
Apparentmagnitude
1
Number of stars
15
2
2
Apparentmagnitude
2
Number of stars
48
3
3
Apparentmagnitude
3
Number of stars
171
4
4
Apparentmagnitude
4
Number of stars
513
5
5
Apparentmagnitude
5
Number of stars
1,602
6
6
Apparentmagnitude
6
Number of stars
4,800
7
7
Apparentmagnitude
7
Number of stars
14,000
Apparentmagnitude
Number of stars
0
4
1
15
2
48
3
171
4
513
5
1,602
6
4,800
7
14,000
Surface temperature ranges fordifferent stellar classes[191] · Classification
O
O
Class
O
Temperature
33,000 K or more
Sample star
Zeta Ophiuchi
B
B
Class
B
Temperature
10,500–30,000 K
Sample star
Rigel
A
A
Class
A
Temperature
7,500–10,000 K
Sample star
Altair
F
F
Class
F
Temperature
6,000–7,200 K
Sample star
Procyon A
G
G
Class
G
Temperature
5,500–6,000 K
Sample star
Sun
K
K
Class
K
Temperature
4,000–5,250 K
Sample star
Epsilon Indi
M
M
Class
M
Temperature
2,600–3,850 K
Sample star
Proxima Centauri
Class
Temperature
Sample star
O
33,000 K or more
Zeta Ophiuchi
B
10,500–30,000 K
Rigel
A
7,500–10,000 K
Altair
F
6,000–7,200 K
Procyon A
G
5,500–6,000 K
Sun
K
4,000–5,250 K
Epsilon Indi
M
2,600–3,850 K
Proxima Centauri
Duration of the main phases of fusion for a 20 M☉ star[211] · Nuclear fusion reaction pathways
H
H
Fuelmaterial
H
Temperature(million kelvins)
37
Density(kg/cm3)
0.0045
Burn duration(τ in years)
8.1 million
He
He
Fuelmaterial
He
Temperature(million kelvins)
188
Density(kg/cm3)
0.97
Burn duration(τ in years)
1.2 million
C
C
Fuelmaterial
C
Temperature(million kelvins)
870
Density(kg/cm3)
170
Burn duration(τ in years)
976
Ne
Ne
Fuelmaterial
Ne
Temperature(million kelvins)
1,570
Density(kg/cm3)
3,100
Burn duration(τ in years)
0.6
O
O
Fuelmaterial
O
Temperature(million kelvins)
1,980
Density(kg/cm3)
5,550
Burn duration(τ in years)
1.25
S/Si
S/Si
Fuelmaterial
S/Si
Temperature(million kelvins)
3,340
Density(kg/cm3)
33,400
Burn duration(τ in years)
0.0315 (~11.5 days)
Fuelmaterial
Temperature(million kelvins)
Density(kg/cm3)
Burn duration(τ in years)
H
37
0.0045
million
He
188
0.97
million
C
870
170
976
Ne
1,570
3,100
0.6
O
1,980
5,550
1.25
S/Si
3,340
33,400
days)

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