Topzle Topzle

Somalia

Updated: Wikipedia source

Somalia

Somalia, officially the Federal Republic of Somalia, is the easternmost country in continental Africa. Stretching across the Horn of Africa, it borders Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, and the Indian Ocean to the east. Somalia has the longest coastline on Africa's mainland. Somalia has an estimated population of more than 18 million, of which 2.7 million live in the capital and largest city, Mogadishu. As one of Africa's most ethnically homogenous countries, around 85% of its residents are ethnic Somalis. The official and national language of the country is Somali while Arabic is recognized as a second language. The overwhelming majority of the population are Sunni Muslims. In antiquity, Somalia was an important commercial centre. During the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, including the Ajuran Sultanate, Adal Sultanate, and the Sultanate of the Geledi. In the late 19th century, the Somali sultanates were colonised by the Italian and British empires, who merged all of these tribal territories into two colonies: Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland. In 1960, the two territories united to form the independent Somali Republic under a civilian government. Siad Barre of the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) seized power in 1969 and established the Somali Democratic Republic, brutally attempting to quash the Somaliland War of Independence in the north of the country. The SRC collapsed in 1991 with the onset of the Somali Civil War. The Transitional National Government of Somalia (TNG) was established in 2000, followed by the formation of the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia (TFG) in 2004, which reestablished the Somali Armed Forces. At the end of 2006, a US-backed Ethiopian invasion overthrew the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), leading to the installation of the TFG in Mogadishu under an Ethiopian military occupation. The subsequent insurgency which emerged saw the ICU fragment into various rebel factions, including the militant group al-Shabaab, which waged a protracted conflict against Ethiopian forces. Al-Shabaab soon began asserting territorial control for the first time, and by late 2008 the insurgency had driven the Ethiopian army out of much of Somalia. In 2009, a new TFG government was established. By mid-2012, al-Shabaab lost most of its territories during fighting against the TFG and African Union troops. That same year, al-Shabaab pledged allegiance to al-Qaeda. The insurgents still control much of central and southern Somalia, and wield influence in government-controlled areas, with the city of Jilib acting as the de facto capital for Al-Shabaab-controlled Islamic Emirate of Somalia. A new provisional constitution was passed in August 2012, reforming Somalia as a federation. The same month, the Federal Government of Somalia was formed and a period of reconstruction began in Mogadishu. Somalia is among the least developed countries in the world, as evidenced by its ranking in metrics such as GDP per capita and its position near the bottom of the Human Development Index, above only South Sudan. It has maintained an informal economy mainly based on livestock, remittances from Somalis working abroad, and telecommunications. It is a member of the United Nations, the Arab League, African Union, Non-Aligned Movement, East African Community, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.

Infobox

Capitaland largest city
Mogadishu 2°2′N 45°21′E / 2.033°N 45.350°E / 2.033; 45.350
Official languages
Somali
Ethnic groups (2021)
mw- 85% Somali 15% other
Religion
Sunni Islam (official)
Demonym
Somali
Government
Federal parliamentary republic
• President
Hassan Sheikh Mohamud
• Prime Minister
Hamza Abdi Barre
Legislature
Federal Parliament
• Upper house
Senate
• Lower house
House of the People
• Land of Punt
2350 BC
• Macrobia
980 BC
• Barbaria
100 BC
• Adal Sultanate
9th century
• Mogadishu Sultanate
10th century
• Sultanate of Ifat
13th century
• Ajuran Sultanate
13th century
• Hiraab Imamate
16th century
• Geledi Sultanate
1695–1911
• Majeerteen Sultanate
1648–1927
• Sultanate of Hobyo
1878–1927
• Isaaq Sultanate
1749–1884
• British Somaliland
1884–1960
• Italian Somaliland
1889–1941
• Independence of the State of Somaliland from the United Kingdom
26 June 1960
• Independence of the Trust Territory of Somaliland from Italy and union with the State of Somaliland to form the Somali Republic
1 July 1960
• Current constitution
1 August 2012
• Total
$12.990 billion (147th)
• 2025 estimate
19,280,850 (66th)
• Density
27.2/km2 (70.4/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)
2025 estimate
• Per capita
$766 (177th)
GDP (nominal)
2025 estimate
Gini (2017)
36.8 } }medium inequality
HDI (2023)
0.404low (192nd)
Currency
Somali shilling (SOS)
Time zone
UTC 3 (EAT)
Calling code
252
ISO 3166 code
SO
Internet TLD
so
Recognized languages
Arabic
Second language
Arabic
Gini (2022 (Last available data))
35.2 } }medium inequality
Demonyms
Somali, Somalian[a]
Gini (2022 (last available data))
35.2 } }medium inequality

Tables

· Demographics
Year
Year
Population
Year
Population
Million
1950
1950
Population
1950
Population
2.3
2000
2000
Population
2000
Population
9.0
2021
2021
Population
2021
Population
17.1
Population
Year
Million
1950
2.3
2000
9.0
2021
17.1

References

  1. Usually used to refer to citizens of Somalia who are not ethnically Somali.
  2. /səˈmɑːliə, soʊ-/ ⓘ sə-MAH-lee-ə, soh; Somali: Soomaaliya [soːmaːlija], Osmanya script: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; Arabic: الصوما
  3. Somali: Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya; Arabic: جمهورية الصومال الفيدرالية
  4. The Djiboutian–Somali border is de jure controlled by the internationally recognized Federal Republic of Somalia, but is
  5. The World Factbook
    https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia
  6. Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar, and Saho
    https://books.google.com/books?id=k3QwAQAAIAAJ
  7. Oxford English Dictionary
    https://www.oed.com/dictionary/somalian_adj
  8. Encyclopedia Americana
    https://books.google.com/books?id=OP5LAAAAMAAJ
  9. Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho
    https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd0mAQAAMAAJ
  10. "OCHA Somalia - Subnational Population Statistics"
    https://data.humdata.org/dataset/cod-ps-som
  11. population.un.org
    https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Standard/MostUsed/
  12. "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025"
    https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april
  13. "Somalia National Bureau of Statistics (SNBS) Launches Poverty & Inequality Report"
    https://nbs.gov.so/somalia-national-bureau-of-statistics-snbs-launches-poverty-inequality-report/
  14. "Human Development Report 2025"
    https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf
  15. English Pronouncing Dictionary
  16. Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
    https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Somalia
  17. Dictionary.com Unabridged
    https://www.dictionary.com/browse/Somalia
  18. "The Federal Republic of Somalia – Provisional Constitution"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20121003021031/http://somaliweyn.com/pages/news/Aug_12/Somalia_Constitution_English_FOR_WEB.pdf
  19. PONARS Eurasia
    https://www.ponarseurasia.org/de-facto-states-unbound/
  20. The Foreign Policy of Counter Secession
    https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199698394.001.0001
  21. John Kenrick (1855) Phoenicia, B. Fellowes, p. 199.
  22. Ancient Trade and Society
    https://books.google.com/books?id=9iu6AAAAIAAJ
  23. Geopolítica de lo Desconocido: Una visión diferente de la Política Internacional
  24. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc, Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. 1, (Encyclopædia Britannica: 2005), p. 163
  25. Laitin 1977, p. 8
  26. The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy
  27. Clan Cleansing in Somalia: The Ruinous Legacy of 1991
    https://books.google.com/books?id=PBvfTmzsZ-0C&q=declared+economic+warfare+on+somalis+from+the+northwestern&pg=PA84
  28. "Council on Foreign Relations"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20180509080323/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/Somaliland_Parade
  29. The New York Times
    https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/24/world/africa/24somalia.html?partner=rssnyt&emc=rss
  30. Review of African Political Economy
    https://www.jstor.org/stable/20406369
  31. Terrorism and Political Violence
    https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09546553.2016.1165213
  32. The Rule Is For None But Allah
    https://books.google.com/books?id=D97AEAAAQBAJ
  33. The Horn of Africa
    https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt183p650.14
  34. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/29/somali-president-resigns
  35. CNN
    http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/africa/01/31/somalia.election.president/
  36. BBC News
    https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-16979440
  37. BBC News
    https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54690561
  38. Council on Foreign Relations
    https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/al-shabab
  39. www.aa.com.tr
    https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/kenyan-troops-seize-al-shabaab-base-in-somalia/455875
  40. "Somalia's newly-endorsed constitution widely hailed"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20131007224547/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/indepth/2012-08/02/c_131757152.htm
  41. "Mogadishu: East Africa's newest business destination?"
    http://www.howwemadeitinafrica.com/mogadishu-east-africas-newest-business-destination/17661/
  42. www.un.org
    https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/least-developed-country-category/ldcs-at-a-glance.html
  43. The Invention of Somalia
    https://books.google.com/books?id=XpdAzRYruCwC&q=northern+southern+soo+maal+invention&pg=PA85
  44. I. M. Lewis, A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa,
  45. A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa
    https://books.google.com/books?id=L2vXPfRsf04C
  46. Somali studies: early history
    https://books.google.com/books?id=kREOAQAAMAAJ&q=Somali+studies+zu+maal
  47. Journal of the East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society, Issues 24–30
    https://books.google.com/books?id=vwccAAAAMAAJ
  48. David D. Laitin, Said S. Samatar, Somalia: Nation in Search of a State, (Westview Press: 1987), p. 5.
  49. Lee V. Cassanelli, The shaping of Somali society: reconstructing the history of a pastoral people, 1600–1900, (Universit
  50. Nagendra Kr Singh, International encyclopaedia of Islamic dynasties, (Anmol Publications PVT. LTD., 2002), p. 524.
  51. I.M. Lewis, A modern history of the Somali: nation and state in the Horn of Africa, 4, illustrated edition, (James Curre
  52. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3
    https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C&q=simur+harari&pg=PA154
  53. Michel, A. D. A. M. "Panorama of Socio-Religious Communities1." Indian Africa: Minorities of Indian-Pakistani Origin in
  54. Woldu, Demelash. Exploring language uses and policy processes in Karat Town of Konso Woreda, Ethiopia. Diss. University
  55. African Archaeology
    https://books.google.com/books?id=lRDYAW4wXOYC&q=Eburran+industry&pg=PA125
  56. A History of African Archaeology
    https://archive.org/details/historyofafrican0000unse_j3c5/page/105
  57. Quaternary International
    https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014QuInt.343...69G
  58. The Prehistoric Cultures of the Horn of Africa: An Analysis of the Stone Age Cultural and Climatic Succession in the Somalilands and Eastern Parts of Abyssinia
    https://books.google.com/books?id=hCb6xzeydigC&q=somalia+stillbay+culture&pg=PA201
  59. Encyclopedia of Human Evolution and Prehistory
    https://books.google.com/books?id=6GFGsswTIO8C
  60. The Evolution of Human Populations in Arabia: Paleoenvironments, Prehistory and Genetics
    https://books.google.com/books?id=x6o4XLIKN0UC&q=hargesian+culture&pg=PA199
  61. World Archaeology
    https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1988.9980055
  62. Man
    https://archive.org/stream/mananth9a10royauoft/mananth9a10royauoft_djvu.txt
  63. Zarins, Juris (1990), "Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia", (Bulletin of the American Schoo
  64. Science
    https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Sci...300..597D
  65. "Grotto galleries show early Somali life"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20130921061703/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jMNd90UAafsRNEDPyelL7Hee1ydw?docId=CNG.82196a5b15ef45a2d4e744675740cd6a.6e1
  66. African Archaeological Review
    https://web.archive.org/web/20130627100400/http://www.mbali.info/doc494.htm
  67. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/17/cave-paintings-found-in-somaliland
  68. East African Handbook
    https://books.google.com/books?id=bL8tAQAAIAAJ
  69. Somalia Today: General Information
    https://books.google.com/books?id=tMVAAAAAYAAJ
  70. Suzanne Richard (2003) Near Eastern archaeology: a reader Archived 23 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine, Eisenbrauns,
    https://books.google.com/books?id=khR0apPid8gC&pg=PA120
  71. The History of Somalia
    https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C
  72. The Illustrated Timeline of the History of the World
    https://books.google.com/books?id=RO4kS1IR71sC
  73. Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Archaeology
    https://books.google.com/books?id=1E13DorsFMEC
  74. The Geography of Herodotus: Illustrated from Modern Researches and Discoveries by James Talboys Wheeler, pg 1xvi, 315, 5
    https://archive.org/stream/geographyofherod00whee/geographyofherod00whee_djvu.txt
  75. John Kitto, James Taylor, The popular cyclopædia of Biblical literature: condensed from the larger work, (Gould and Linc
  76. Warmington 1995, p. 54.
  77. Warmington 1995, p. 229.
  78. Warmington 1995, p. 187.
  79. Warmington 1995, pp. 185–186.
  80. Somaliland
    https://books.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC
  81. Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho
    https://archive.org/details/peoplesofthehorn007763mbp
  82. The History and Description of Africa
    https://archive.org/stream/historyanddescr03porygoog#page/n180/mode/2up
  83. Blood and Bone: The Call of Kinship in Somali Society
    https://books.google.com/books?id=9fAjtruUXjEC
  84. E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936
    https://books.google.com/books?id=zJU3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA125
  85. International Journal of Middle East Studies
    https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800063145
  86. Bradt Somaliland: With Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia
    https://books.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC&pg=PA10
  87. A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa
    https://books.google.com/books?id=eK6SBJIckIsC&pg=PA17
  88. Somalia: Storia della Somalia. L'Islām in Somalia. Il Libro degli Zengi
  89. Enciclopedia italiana di scienze, lettere ed arti
  90. Lewis, I.M. (1999) A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Af
  91. Papers in African Prehistory
    https://archive.org/details/papersinafricanp0000fage
  92. A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco Da Gama, 1497–1499
    https://books.google.com/books?id=AwcPInJC__gC&pg=PA88
  93. Annales d'Ethiopie
    http://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/ethio_0066-2127_1976_num_10_1_1157.pdf
  94. Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays
    https://books.google.com/books?id=HGnyk8Pg9NgC&pg=PA18
  95. Sir Reginald Coupland (1965) East Africa and its invaders: from the earliest times to the death of Seyyid Said in 1856,
  96. East Africa and the Indian Ocean
    https://books.google.com/books?id=DNHvb6nSN-AC&pg=PA79
  97. The Return of Cosmopolitan Capital: Globalization, the State and War
    https://books.google.com/books?id=S3oyoVIIlMQC&pg=PA22
  98. The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean world of the Seventeenth Century /c R.J. Barendse
    https://books.google.com/books?id=_qvq9dN8j5MC&pg=PA343
  99. Alpers 1976.
  100. Caroline Sassoon (1978) Chinese Porcelain Marks from Coastal Sites in Kenya: Aspects of Trade in the Indian Ocean, XIV–X
  101. Sir Reginald Coupland (1965) East Africa and Its Invaders: From the Earliest Times to the Death of Seyyid Said in 1856,
  102. East Africa and the Indian Ocean
    https://books.google.com/books?id=DNHvb6nSN-AC&pg=PA79
  103. The Horn Engaging the Gulf Economic Diplomacy and Statecraft in Regional Relations
  104. Suicidal Behavior in Muslim Majority Countries: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Prevention
    https://books.google.com/books?id=YUoNEQAAQBAJ&dq=isaaq+sultanate&pg=PA274
  105. Truhart, P. (1984). Regents of nations: systematic chronology of states and their political representatives in past and
  106. I. M. Lewis, A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa,
  107. "Taariikhda Beerta Suldaan Cabdilaahi ee Hargeysa | Somalidiasporanews.com"
    http://www.qurbejoog.com/taariikhda-beerta-suldaan-cabdilaahi-ee-hargeysa/
  108. Genealogies of the Somal
  109. "Taariikhda Saldanada Reer Guuleed Ee Somaliland.Abwaan:Ibraahim-rashiid Cismaan Guure (aboor). | Togdheer News Network"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20210111020220/http://togdheernews.com/articles/31/05/2016/taariikhda-saldanada-reer-guuleed-ee-somaliland-abwaanibraahim-rashiid-cismaan-guure-aboor/
  110. Hubaal Media
    https://web.archive.org/web/20210811205734/https://www.hubaalmedia.net/degmada-cusub-ee-dacarta-oo-loogu-wanqalay-munaasibad-kulmisay-madaxda-iyo-haldoorka-somaliland/
  111. www.tashiwanaag.com
    https://www.tashiwanaag.com/toljecle-taariikh-ahaan.html
  112. Taariikhda Boqortooyadii Axmed Sheikh Isaxaaq ee Toljecle 1787
    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MfB4XvREbI
  113. New Issues in Refugee Research Working Paper No. 65 Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements i
  114. Langers Encyclopedia of World History, 594.
  115. Mariam Arif Gassem, Somalia: clan vs. nation (s.n.: 2002), p. 4
  116. History of East Africa
    https://books.google.com/books?id=pGkMAQAAIAAJ
  117. Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History (CRC Press, 2005), p. 1406.
  118. Rhyl Record and Advertiser
    https://newspapers.library.wales/view/3640121/3640124/41/
  119. Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African history, (CRC Press: 2005), p. 1406.
  120. Samatar 1982, pp. 131, 135.
    https://archive.org/details/oralpoetrysomali00sama/page/n144
  121. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians
    https://www.academia.edu/144572290/Transforming_Cefal%C3%B9_in_Mogadishu_The_Arabo_Normanna_Cathedral_of_Italian_Somalia_and_the_Fa%C3%A7ade_of_Peaceful_Conquest_
  122. Geeska
    https://www.geeska.com/en/claire-dillon-italians-promoted-their-occupation-benefit-colonized
  123. Somalia in Pictures
    https://books.google.com/books?id=iMRf1RZ9zkAC
  124. The Colonial Legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu: From Colonial Administration to Operation Restore Hope
    https://books.google.com/books?id=eJR3RAAACAAJ
  125. Zolberg, Suhrke & Aguayo 1989, p. 106
    https://books.google.com/books?id=B9_yS_ynvzgC&pg=PA106
  126. Africana: the encyclopedia of the African and African American experience: the concise desk reference
    https://books.google.com/books?id=cereWkyNJckC
  127. Helen Chapin Metz, ed. (1992) Somalia: A Country Study Archived 5 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Washington: GPO fo
    http://countrystudies.us/somalia
  128. Federal Research Division (2004) Somalia: A Country Study, Kessinger Publishing, LLC, p. 38, ISBN 1-4191-4799-4.
  129. Laitin 1977, p. 73.
  130. Francis Vallat (1974) First report on succession of states in respect of treaties: International Law Commission twenty-s
  131. Laitin 1977, p. 75.
  132. Domestic political institutions and the evolution of international conflict
    https://books.google.com/books?id=isYeAQAAMAAJ
  133. Schraeder 2006, p. 115
    https://books.google.com/books?id=pyWpKKlukLcC&pg=PA115
  134. Kevin Shillington (2005) Encyclopedia of African history, CRC Press, p. 360, ISBN 1-57958-245-1.
  135. Encyclopædia Britannica, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, (Encyclopædia Britannica: 2002), p. 835
  136. "The dawn of the Somali nation-state in 1960"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20090116055005/http://www.buluugleey.com/warkiidanbe/Governance.htm
  137. "The making of a Somalia state"
    http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htwin/articles/20060809.aspx
  138. "The 1961 Referendum"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20151011003402/http://www.somalilandlaw.com/The_1961_Referendum_Table1_Note.pdf
  139. The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East, Greystone Press: 1967, p. 338.
  140. "Political Implication of Assassination of Somali President"
    https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/LOC-HAK-510-5-8-1.pdf
  141. Somali Piracy and Terrorism in the Horn of Africa
  142. Arrivederci a Mogadiscio
  143. Mending rips in the sky: options for Somali communities in the 21st century
    https://books.google.com/books?id=0m9yAAAAMAAJ
  144. J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver (1985) The Cambridge history of Africa, Vol. 8, Cambridge University Press, p. 478, IS
  145. The Encyclopedia Americana: complete in thirty volumes. Skin to Sumac, Vol. 25, Grolier: 1995, p. 214, ISBN 0-7172-0126-
  146. de la Fosse Wiles, Peter John (1982) The New Communist Third World: an essay in political economy Archived 23 January 20
    https://books.google.com/books?id=lgMOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279
  147. Area Handbook for Somalia
  148. The History of Somalia
  149. Benjamin Frankel (1992) The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe
  150. Oihe Yang (2000) Africa South of the Sahara 2001, 30th ed., Taylor and Francis, p. 1025 ISBN 1-85743-078-6.
  151. Gebru Tareke 2009, pp. 182–186. The areas concerned amount to about a third of Ethiopia.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=dRIfYPTZxJsC&pg=PA182
  152. Encyclopedia of international peacekeeping operations
    https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofin0000rams
  153. "Somalia — Government"
    http://countrystudies.us/somalia/65.htm
  154. "State-sponsored violence and conflict under Mahamed Siyad Barre: the emergence of path dependent patterns of violence"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20231002022805/https://sites.tufts.edu/reinventingpeace/2013/10/22/state-sponsored-violence-and-conflict-under-mahamed-siyad-barre-the-emergence-of-path-dependent-patterns-of-violence/
  155. webarchive.archive.unhcr.org
    https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230604082615/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6acb654.html
  156. Refwolrd
    https://www.refworld.org/reference/annualreport/hrw/1990/en/35330#:~:text=We%20urge%20the,from%20international%20largesse.
  157. reliefweb
    https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/one-four-people-somalia-have-now-fled-their-homes#:~:text=%E2%80%9CThe%20city%20of%20Baidoa%20earned,war%20in%20the%20early%201990s.
  158. The Genesis of the Civil War in Somalia: The Impact of Foreign Military Intervention on the Conflict
  159. Focus on the Horn, Issues 7–9
  160. Columbia University, School of International Affairs, Journal of international affairs, Vol. 40 (1986), p. 165.
  161. BBC News
    http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1367554.stm
  162. BBC News
    http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1361394.stm
  163. Ynetglobal
    https://www.ynetnews.com/article/dxt2vjv0o
  164. Al J. Venter (1975) Africa Today, p. 152, ISBN 0-86954-023-8
  165. Library Information and Research Service, The Middle East: Abstracts and index, Vol. 2, (Library Information and Researc
  166. "Harbinger of a New World Order? Humanitarian Intervention in Somalia"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20120316145832/https://circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/2429/5267/ubc_1994-0415.pdf?sequence=1
  167. "Somalia: Some key actors in the transitional process"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20070927193104/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/0/cd80e675a2fba86a49256ff90029df0f?OpenDocument
  168. The New Yorker
    https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/12/14/the-most-failed-state
  169. The Independent
    https://web.archive.org/web/20171112131834/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/somalia-a-failed-state-is-back-from-the-dead-8449310.html?printService=print
  170. The New York Times
    https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/10/opinion/yes-there-is-a-reason-to-be-in-somalia.html
  171. The World Factbook
    https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/
  172. "TNG Prime Minister Concludes Formation of Cabinet"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20040921233018/http://www.banadir.com/cabinet.shtml
  173. ":: Xinhuanet – English"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20041121085231/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-11/13/content_2213479.htm
  174. The World Factbook
    https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/
  175. Forum on China-Africa Cooperation
    http://allafrica.com/stories/201208220474.html
  176. afjn.org
    https://afjn.org/somalia-mourns-a-golden-era-as-crisis-worsens/
  177. The New York Times
    https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/20/world/africa/20somalia.html
  178. "Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia"
    http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/153/26334.html
  179. "Somalia President, Parliament Speaker dispute over TFG term"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110514131640/http://www.garoweonline.com/english/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=558%3Asomalia-president-parliament-speaker-dispute-over-tfg-term&catid=55%3Asomalia&Itemid=79
  180. "USCIRF Annual Report 2009 – The Commission's Watch List: Somalia"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110510005900/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher%2CUSCIRF%2C%2C%2C4a4f272bc%2C0.html
  181. "Somalia: Guide to Puntland Election 2009"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20130928150305/http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Guide_to_Puntland_Election_2009_printer.shtml
  182. "Opening Annual General Assembly Debate, Secretary-General Urges Member States to Press in Tackling Poverty, Terrorism, Human Rights Abuses, Conflicts"
    http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2005/ga10386.html
  183. "Somalia's president quits office" Archived 13 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, 29 December 2008.
    http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7802622.stm
  184. "Somali President Yusuf resigns" Archived 31 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Reuters (FT.com), 29 December 2008.
    https://www.ft.com/content/a790e984-d590-11dd-a9cc-000077b07658
  185. Horseed Media
    https://web.archive.org/web/20130928234017/http://horseedmedia.net/2010/05/22/un-boss-urges-support-for-somalia-ahead-of-istanbul-summit/
  186. BBC News
    http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8318798.stm
  187. Shariah in Somalia Archived 27 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine – Arab News
    http://www.arabnews.com/?page=4&section=0&article=119757&d=1&m=3&y=2009
  188. "Joint Communique – Operation Linda Nchi"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20120816100759/http://www.kenyahighcomtz.org/?action=event-read-more.html&id=1
  189. "The Kenyan Military Intervention in Somalia"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20150923225142/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/horn-of-africa/kenya/184%20-%20The%20Kenyan%20Military%20Intervention%20in%20Somalia.pdf
  190. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/sep/28/kenyan-soldiers-capture-kismayo-somalia
  191. "Analysis of EUCAP Nestor by the Global Governance Institute"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20130402205646/http://www.globalgovernance.eu/index.php/p-s-publications/246-new-analysis-the-somali-crisis-and-the-eu-3.html
  192. "Somalia rising after two decades of civil war and unrest"
    http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20120810180135/http://english.alarabiya.net/views/2012/08/08/231008.html
  193. "SOMALIA: President says Godane is dead, now is the chance for the members of al-Shabaab to embrace peace"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20140906202740/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/09/somalia-president-says-godane-is-dead-now-is-the-chance-for-the-members-of-al-shabaab-to-embrace-peace/
  194. "Partnerships and Data Sharing Enhance Delivery of Somalia Drought Relief"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20250207000848/https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/africacan/partnerships-and-data-sharing-enhance-delivery-of-somalia-drought-relief-afe-0624
  195. World Factbook
    https://web.archive.org/web/20160701194614/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html
  196. The World Factbook
    https://web.archive.org/web/20170716042040/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2060.html
  197. Ganzglass, Martin R. "The Somali Refugees-Africa's Open Wound Refuses to Heal." Hum. Rts. 8 (1979): 28.
  198. "Somalia – Climate"
    http://countrystudies.us/somalia/34.htm
  199. Hadden, Robert Lee. 2007. "The Geology of Somalia: A Selected Bibliography of Somalian Geology, Geography and Earth Scie
    https://web.archive.org/web/20090327102547/http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA464006
  200. International Traffic Network, The world trade in sharks: a compendium of Traffic's regional studies, (Traffic Internati
  201. BioScience
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5451287
  202. National Geographic, Vol. 159, National Geographic Society, 1981, p. 765.
  203. Geoffrey Gilbert (2004) World poverty, ABC-CLIO, p. 111, ISBN 1-85109-552-7.
  204. "Goldman Prize"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20100712071037/http://www.hornrelief.org/goldman-prize-2002.htm
  205. "International Women's Day – 8 March 2006 – Fatima Jibrell"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20070214204154/http://www.unep.org/women_env/w_details.asp?w_id=397
  206. "Fatima Jibrell"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110511161616/http://www.goldmanprize.org/node/113
  207. National Geographic
    https://web.archive.org/web/20090912034421/http://blogs.nationalgeographic.com/blogs/news/chiefeditor/2008/12/conservation-heroes.html
  208. The Times
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110810033244/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article418665.ece
  209. The Camel (Camelus Dromedarius): A Bibliographical Review
  210. Dickinson, E.C. (Ed.)(2003) The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. Revised and enlarged 3rd
  211. FishBase 2004: a global information system on fishes. DVD. WorldFish Center – Philippine Office, Los Banos, Philippines.
  212. The Reptile Database
    https://web.archive.org/web/20151102083427/http://reptile-database.org/
  213. The World Factbook
    https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/
  214. Al Jazeera
    http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/08/2012818183718864689.html
  215. BBC News
    https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19075685
  216. "President's inauguration marks 'new era' for Somalia, says UN envoy"
    https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=42900&Cr=Somali&Cr1=
  217. "Somalia: Somali Leaders Adopt Draft Constitution"
    http://gulfnews.com/news/region/somalia/somali-leaders-adopt-draft-constitution-1.1039429
  218. BBC News
    https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19075685
  219. Sabahi
    http://sabahionline.com/en_GB/articles/hoa/articles/features/2012/08/29/feature-02
  220. www.cia.gov
    https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/
  221. "The V-Dem Dataset"
    https://www.v-dem.net/data/the-v-dem-dataset/
  222. Crisis Group
    https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/horn-africa/somalia/somalia-somaliland-halting-embrace-dialogue
  223. East African Business Week
    https://web.archive.org/web/20220531055428/https://www.busiweek.com/russia-digs-into-somaliland-somalia-feud-as-envoy-calls-for-resumption-of-talks/
  224. Goobjoog
    https://web.archive.org/web/20150109002414/http://goobjoog.com/english/?p=6410
  225. "Adado conference kicks off in central Somalia"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20150811104021/http://www.garoweonline.com/page/show/post/2322/adado-conference-kicks-off-in-central-somalia
  226. "Guidebook to the Somali Draft Provisional Constitution"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20130120021547/http://unpos.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=v067edqd7a8%3D&tabid=9705&language=en-US
  227. United Nations
    https://www.un.org/en/about-us/member-states
  228. African Union
    https://web.archive.org/web/20171107025239/https://au.int/en/memberstates
  229. League of Arab States
    http://www.lasportal.org/ar/aboutlas/Pages/CountryData.aspx
  230. "Member states"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20131209072808/http://www.oic-oci.org/oicv2/states/
  231. Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
    https://www.oic-oci.org/states/?lan=en
  232. "Somalia joins East African Community"
    https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-67522844
  233. Nuclear Threat Initiative
    https://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/non-aligned-movement-nam/
  234. "AMISOM offers IHL training to senior officials of the Somali National Forces"
    http://amisom-au.org/2012/10/amisom-offers-ihl-training-to-senior-officials-of-the-somali-national-forces/
  235. "Somalia: A Country Study – Army Ranks and Insignia"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20121004045134/http://www.marines.mil/news/publications/Documents/Somalia%20Study_3.pdf
  236. Library of Congress Country Study, Somalia, The Warrior Tradition and Development of a Modern Army Archived 7 April 2023
    http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+so0116)
  237. Walta Info
    http://www.waltainfo.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6968:somalia-re-opens-its-national-intelligence-a-security-agency&catid=70:international-news&Itemid=309
  238. UPI
    http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2013/09/03/Somalia-takes-human-rights-steps/UPI-34071378218185/
  239. UN News Centre
    https://archive.today/20140220063126/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp/www.wmo.int/html/story.asp?NewsID=45759&Cr=somalia&Cr1=%23.UwVrE5gju1E
  240. "SOMALIA: AU Special Representative reiterates AMISOM's commitment in protecting the rights of women and vulnerable members of Society"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20140302122017/http://horseedmedia.net/2013/08/14/somalia-au-special-representative-reiterates-amisoms-commitment-in-protecting-the-rights-of-women-and-vulnerable-members-of-society/
  241. The Week
    https://web.archive.org/web/20191128203653/https://www.theweek.co.uk/96298/the-countries-where-homosexuality-is-still-illegal
  242. Voice of America – English
    https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_un-expert-somalia-backtracking-human-rights-commitments/6196704.html
  243. "Central Bank of Somalia – Economy and Finance"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20090124192809/http://somalbanca.org/economy-and-finance.html
  244. "CIA World Factbook: Somalia (1995)"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110511085616/http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps35389/1995/wf950219.htm
  245. "CIA World Factbook: Somalia (2003)"
    http://www.bartleby.com/151/so.html#Economy
  246. The British Chambers of Commerce Guide to African Markets
    https://books.google.com/books?id=SvB0OwAACAAJ
  247. "Better Off Stateless: Somalia Before and After Government Collapse"
    http://www.peterleeson.com/Better_Off_Stateless.pdf
  248. Rosati, Tewolde & Mosconi 2007.
  249. The Arab countries demand Australian sheep and lamb Archived 15 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine – Farmonline
    http://www.meattradenewsdaily.co.uk/news/230810/australia___the_gulf_demand_for_australian_sheep_and_lamb.aspx
  250. "Expanding Investment Finance in Northern Kenya and Other Arid Lands"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110513155643/http://www.elmt-relpa.org/FCKeditor/UserFiles/File/elmt/201004/Final%20Report%20Annex%203%20-%20sector%20profiles%20-%20logos.pdf
  251. "Aviation"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20140517133126/http://www.somalichamber.so/?page_id=62
  252. "Government of Punt Land State of Somalia, Lootah Investment sign strategic agreements worth Dhs170m"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20131006071502/http://www.ameinfo.com/176786.html
  253. "Somalia: The Resilience of a People"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20150626112218/http://www.africanexecutive.com/modules/magazine/article_print.php?article=4693
  254. International Herald Tribune
    https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/10/world/africa/10iht-journal.2166680.html
  255. Little, Peter D. (2003) Somalia: Economy without State. Indiana University Press, p. 4, ISBN 0-85255-865-1.
  256. "Central Bank of Somalia – Monetary policy"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20090125062011/http://somalbanca.org/monetary-policy.html
  257. "Central Bank of Somalia – Payment system"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20090122232449/http://somalbanca.org/payment-system.html
  258. "UK Somali Remittances Survey"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20201109191722/http://www.diaspora-centre.org/DOCS/UK_Somali_Remittan.pdf
  259. Tower Hamlets Recorder
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110511205333/http://www.threcorder.co.uk/content/towerhamlets/recorder/news/story.aspx?brand=REConline&category=newsTowerHam&tBrand=northlondon24&tCategory=newstower&itemid=WeED13%20Apr%202010%2010%3A02%3A08%3A730
  260. Financial Times
    http://blogs.ft.com/beyond-brics/2014/03/20/the-curious-tale-of-the-world-beating-somali-shilling/
  261. Reuters
    https://www.reuters.com/article/kenya-somalia-investment-idUSL6E8J8D1J20120808
  262. "Mission & Vision"
    http://www.somenergy.com/Mission-Vision.php
  263. "Somalia"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20160306075656/http://unctad.org/sections/dite_fdistat/docs/wid_cp_so_en.pdf
  264. "Exploration rights in Somalia for Chinese oil giant CNOOC"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20070917005212/http://www.oilmarketer.co.uk/2007/07/18/exploration-rights-in-somalia-for-chinese-oil-giant-cnooc/
  265. "OPEC: World proven crude oil reserves by country, 1960–2011"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20130905210305/http://www.opec.org/library/Annual%20Statistical%20Bulletin/interactive/current/FileZ/XL/T31.HTM
  266. Bloomberg BusinessWeek
    https://web.archive.org/web/20130825065126/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2013-08-08/soma-oil-and-gas-may-invest-20-million-to-survey-war-torn-somalia
  267. The New York Times
    https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=hbVWAAAAIBAJ&pg=7276%2C235261
  268. IAEA
    https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/40/087/40087878.pdf
  269. MarketWatch
    http://www.marketwatch.com/story/long-forgotten-uranium-bonanza-rediscovered-kilimanjaro-unleashes-somalia-uranium-exploration-initiative-2014-04-15-71733149
  270. Reuters
    https://www.reuters.com/article/world/somalia-business-keen-to-join-forces-for-peace-idUSTRE64M158/
  271. The Wall Street Journal
    https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704608104575220570113266984
  272. Christopher J. Coyne (2008) After war: the political economy of exporting democracy, Stanford University Press, p. 154,
  273. Abdi Hajji Hussein (4 April 2011) After 20 years, Somali president inaugurates national TV station. gantdaily.com
    https://web.archive.org/liveweb/http://gantdaily.com/2011/04/04/after-20-years-somali-president-inaugurates-national-tv-station/
  274. Sabahi
    http://sabahionline.com/en_GB/articles/hoa/articles/features/2012/12/11/feature-01
  275. SO Registry Archived 31 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Soregistry.so. Retrieved 16 August 2013.
    http://www.soregistry.so/
  276. Universal Postal Union
    https://web.archive.org/web/20131109172506/http://news.upu.int/no_cache/nd/international-mail-services-officially-resume-in-somalia/
  277. BBC News
    https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-29606447?print=true
  278. Sabahi
    http://sabahionline.com/en_GB/articles/hoa/articles/newsbriefs/2012/11/01/newsbrief-06
  279. "Somali Tourism Association (SOMTA)"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20190123131425/http://somta.so/
  280. "South West State to renovate Government Hotels to Attract Tourism"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20230411145528/https://goobjoog.com/english/?p=12161
  281. travelmaps.state.gov
    https://travelmaps.state.gov/TSGMap/?extent=32.829980986,-1.783760626,59.54518237,12.077308381
  282. The First 100 Days in Office. Waayaha.net. 26 April 2009.
    https://web.archive.org/web/20130223041615/http://www.waayaha.net/view.php?articleid=7880
  283. Africa Review 2003: The Economic and Business Report, Walden Publishing, 2003, p. 299, ISBN 1-86217-037-1.
  284. "World Airline Directory – Somali Airlines"
    http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1995/1995%20-%201010.html
  285. "Somalia to revive national airline after 21 years"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20141102150005/http://laanta.net/2012/07/24/somalia-to-revive-national-airline-after-21-years/
  286. Keydmedia Online
    https://web.archive.org/web/20131202231315/http://www.keydmedia.net/en/news/article/the_long_awaited_somali_airlines_is_coming_back/
  287. "World Population Prospects 2022"
    https://population.un.org/wpp/
  288. "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950–2100"
    https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Files/1_Indicators%20(Standard)/EXCEL_FILES/1_General/WPP2022_GEN_F01_DEMOGRAPHIC_INDICATORS_COMPACT_REV1.xlsx
  289. International Journal of Health Geographics
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2949749
  290. Significance
    https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1740-9713.2014.00717.x
  291. "World Bank Open Data"
    https://data.worldbank.org/country/SO
  292. "Somalia – population Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine". Library of Congress Country Studies.
    http://countrystudies.us/somalia/36.htm
  293. "Population Estimation Survey 2014 for the 18 pre-war regions of Somalia"
    https://somalia.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population-Estimation-Survey-of-Somalia-PESS-2013-2014.pdf
  294. Diriye Abdullahi 2001, pp. 8–11.
  295. Diriye Abdullahi 2001, p. 138.
  296. Somali Diaspora Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine – Inner City Press
    http://www.innercitypress.com/UNPOSstrategy.doc
  297. "The Somali Bantu: Their History and Culture – People"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20140416191857/http://webdev.cal.org/development/co/bantu/sbpeop.html
  298. Tripodi, Paolo. The Colonial Legacy in Somalia. p. 66
  299. "Warsaxaafadeed ku saabsan celinta jinsiyaddii labaad ee Madaxweynaha Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya Mudane @M_Farmaajo.pic.twitter.com/AtMOPKyN3E"
    https://x.com/TheVillaSomalia/status/1156849940313903104
  300. The Washington Examiner
    https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/somalias-president-renounces-us-citizenship
  301. Bantu ethnic identities in Somalia. (PDF). Retrieved 15 December 2011.
    https://web.archive.org/web/20131024155331/http://www.persee.fr/articleAsPDF/ethio_0066-2127_2003_num_19_1_1051/article_ethio_0066-2127_2003_num_19_1_1051.pdf
  302. "The Government"
    https://web.mfa.gov.so/the-government/
  303. The Palgrave Handbook of Language Policies in Africa
    https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-57308-8_24
  304. "The Government"
    https://web.mfa.gov.so/the-government/
  305. The Palgrave Handbook of Language Policies in Africa
    https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-57308-8_24
  306. The World Factbook
    https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia
  307. I. M. Lewis (1998) Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho, Red Sea Press, p. 11, ISBN 1-56902-104-X.
  308. Lecarme & Maury 1987, p. 22.
  309. Andrew Dalby (1998) Dictionary of languages: the definitive reference to more than 400 languages, Columbia University Pr
  310. Blench, Roger
    http://rogerblench.info/Language/Afroasiatic/General/AALIST.pdf
  311. Economist Intelligence Unit (Great Britain) Middle East annual review (1975) p. 229
  312. Laitin 1977, pp. 86–87.
  313. Ethnologue
    https://www.ethnologue.com/country/so/languages
  314. Helena Dubnov (2003) A grammatical sketch of Somali, Kِppe, pp. 70–71.
  315. Diana Briton Putman, Mohamood Cabdi Noor (1993) The Somalis: their history and culture, Center for Applied Linguistics,
  316. Fiona MacDonald et al. (2000) Peoples of Africa, Vol. 10, Marshall Cavendish, p. 178.
  317. Area Handbook for Somalia: Co-authors: Irving Kaplan [et al.] Research and Writing Were Completed on June 15, 1969
    https://books.google.com/books?id=R0pyAAAAMAAJ&dq=Somali+arab+ties&pg=PA235
  318. "Middle East Policy Council – Muslim Populations Worldwide"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20061214023655/http://www.mepc.org/workshops/popstat.asp
  319. Diriye Abdullahi 2001, p. 1.
  320. Mogadishu University
    https://mu.edu.so/
  321. "Puntland State University | PSU is an Agent of Change"
    https://psu.edu.so/
  322. somalia.savethechildren.net
    https://somalia.savethechildren.net/
  323. Relief International
    https://www.ri.org/reach/africa/somalia
  324. www.care-international.org
    https://www.care-international.org/where-we-work/somalia
  325. drc.ngo
    https://web.archive.org/web/20190802100739/https://drc.ngo/where-we-work/east-africa/somalia
  326. Citypopulation
    https://www.citypopulation.de/en/somalia/admin/
  327. reliefweb
    https://reliefweb.int/map/somalia/somalia-flooding-population-density-baseline-population-district-26-dec-2023
  328. "The Global Religious Landscape"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20130806002044/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-full.pdf
  329. I. M. Lewis (1998) Saints and Somalis: Popular Islam in a Clan-based Society, The Red Sea Press, pp. 8–9, ISBN 1-56902-1
  330. The Economist
    http://www.economist.com/world/middleeast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14707279
  331. Catholic-Hierarchy.org
    http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dmgds.html
  332. Charles George Herbermann (1913) The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doct
  333. Charles Henry Robinson (2007) [1915], History of Christian Missions, Read Books, p. 356.
  334. Daily Nation
    https://web.archive.org/web/20171211105011/http://mobile.nation.co.ke/news/Somalia-bans-Christmas-celebrations/-/1950946/2125192/-/format/xhtml/-/774d8c/-/index.html
  335. "Refugees Vol. 3, No. 128, 2002 UNHCR Publication Refugees about the Somali Bantu"
    http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/3d9ac1502.pdf
  336. Maxamed Siyaad Barre (1970) My country and my people: the collected speeches of Major-General Mohamed Siad Barre, Presid
  337. "Entrepreneurship and Statelessness: A Natural Experiment in the Making in Somalia"
    https://www.scribd.com/doc/22522103/Svrger-2008-Vol-4
  338. "Estimates of Unit Costs for Patient Services for Somalia"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20060626140831/http://www.who.int/choice/country/som/cost/en/index.html
  339. UNDP (2001). Human Development Report 2001-Somalia. New York: UNDP.
  340. "UNdata – Somalia"
    http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=Somalia
  341. World Bank and UNDP (2003). Socio-Economic Survey-Somalia-2004. Washington, D.C./New York: UNDP and World Bank.
  342. World Bank and UNDP (2003). Socio-Economic Survey-Somalia-1999. Washington, D.C./New York: UNDP and World Bank.
  343. UNDP (2006). Human Development Report 2006. New York: UNDP.
  344. "The State Of The World's Midwifery"
    http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html
  345. "Prevalence of FGM"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20090716094114/http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/index.html
  346. American Ethnologist
    https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fae.1975.2.4.02a00030
  347. Herbert L. Bodman, Nayereh Esfahlani Tohidi (1998) Women in Muslim societies: diversity within unity, Lynne Rienner Publ
  348. Suzanne G. Frayser, Thomas J. Whitby (1995) Studies in human sexuality: a selected guide, Libraries Unlimited, p. 257, I
  349. Goldenstein, Rachel. "Female Genital Cutting: Nursing Implications". Journal of Transcultural Nursing. 25.1 (2014): 95–1
  350. The Jakarta Post
    https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/04/16/somalia-female-genital-mutilation-down.html
  351. "Male Circumcision and AIDS: The Macroeconomic Impact of a Health Crisis by Eric Werker, Amrita Ahuja, and Brian Wendell :: NEUDC 2007 Papers :: Northeast Universities Development Consortium Conference"
    http://www.cid.harvard.edu/neudc07/docs/neudc07_s1_p02_ahuja.pdf
  352. Archives of Iranian Medicine
    https://web.archive.org/web/20080413173845/http://ams.ac.ir/aim/07104/0012.pdf
  353. www.unaids.org
    https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/featurestories/2012/july/20120726mogadishu
  354. "The Regional Office And Its Partners – Somalia"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20201218124445/http://www.emro.who.int/EMROInfo/moh/somalia.htm
  355. Ministry of Health – Puntland State of Somalia Archived 17 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Health.puntlandgovt.com. R
    http://health.puntlandgovt.com/
  356. "Somaliland – Government Ministries"
    http://somalilandgov.com/govt-ministries/
  357. "Somalia – Education Overview"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110511075522/http://www.wes.org/ca/wedb/somalia/soedov.htm
  358. "Koranic School Project"
    http://www.pitt.edu/~ginie/somalia/pdf/koran.pdf
  359. Diriye Abdullahi 2001, p. 109
  360. EthnoMed
    https://ethnomed.org/resource/report-on-somali-diet/
  361. Medium
    https://hooyoshouse.medium.com/exploring-the-aromatic-world-of-traditional-somali-spice-blends-3ab93879b74e
  362. Delicious Israel
    https://www.deliciousisrael.com/blog/lahoh
  363. Diriye Abdullahi 2001, p. 113
  364. "Somali Anjero (Canjeero) Anjero Somali | Xawaash.com"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20231004063819/http://xawaash.com/?p=1548
  365. Outlook on Agriculture
    http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.5367/000000007780223669
  366. Xawaash
    https://web.archive.org/web/20230923064942/http://xawaash.com/?p=5892
  367. saveur
    https://www.saveur.com/how-lasagna-landed-africa/#:~:text=Somalia%3A%20Colonized,be%20mixed%20in.
  368. Vice
    https://www.vice.com/en/article/spaghetti-and-bananas-is-somali-comfort-food/
  369. Cafedirect
    https://www.cafedirect.co.uk/shop/the-history-of-coffee/#:~:text=Historians%20believe%20that%20coffee%20was%20being%20exported%20from%20Ethiopia%20to%20Yemen%20by%20Somali%20merchants%20at%20the%20beginning%20of%20the%2015th%20Century.%20Mocha%2C%20a%20city%20in%20Yemen%2C%20became%20the%20centre%20of%20the%20coffee%20trade%20around%20this%20time.
  370. Aden Under British Rule, 1839–1967
    https://books.google.com/books?id=cscbDgqCsOMC&q=harar
  371. mysomalifood
    https://www.mysomalifood.com/qahwe/
  372. archive-stories
    https://archive-stories.com/Halwa-Mahyawa-and-Multiple-Registers-of-Life-in-the-Gulf#:~:text=Halwa/Xalwo,or%20sesame%20seeds.
  373. Culture and Customs of Somalia (Culture and Customs of Africa)
  374. Diriye Abdullahi 2001, pp. 170–1.
  375. First Footsteps in East Africa
  376. "Somalia"
    https://www.britannica.com/place/Somalia
  377. "1981 African Championship for Men"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20090907182902/http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/cid/AFMSM/sid/2399/_/1981_African_Championship_for_Men/index.html
  378. Horseed Media
    https://web.archive.org/web/20131022175949/http://horseedmedia.net/2013/03/06/somalia-moves-forward-at-world-taekwondo-pictures/
  379. Malta Independent
    http://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2010-02-10/others/great-victory-for-malta-in-k1-kickboxing-270164/
  380. John G. Jackson, J. Hampden Jackson (1972) Man, God and Civilization, Citadel Press, p. 216, ISBN 0-8065-0858-2.
  381. Diriye Abdullahi 2001, p. 102.
Image
Source: —
Tip: Wheel or +/− to zoom, drag to pan, Esc to close.