Scientific method

References

1. Book of Optics (circa 1027) After anatomical investigation of the human eye, and an exhaustive study of human visual per
2. Book of Optics Book Seven, Chapter Two [2.1] p.220: — light travels through transparent bodies, such as air, water, glas
3. The full title translation is from Voelkel (2001), p. 60.
4. Kepler was driven to this experiment after observing the partial solar eclipse at Graz, July 10, 1600. He used Tycho Bra
5. Sanches and Locke were both physicians. By his training in Rome and France, Sanches sought a method of science beyond th
   https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/John_Locke#An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding_(1689)
6. On Dewey's Laboratory school in 1902: Cowles 2020 notes that Dewey regarded the Lab school as a collaboration between te
7. The topics of study, as expressed in the vocabulary of its scientists, are approached by a "single unified method". The
8. "no opinion, however absurd and incredible, can be imagined, which has not been maintained by some of the philosophers".
9. "A leap is involved in all thinking" —John Dewey
10. From the hypothesis, deduce valid forms using modus ponens, or using modus tollens. Avoid invalid forms such as affirmin
11. The goal shifts: after observing the x-ray diffraction pattern of DNA, and as time was of the essence, Watson and Crick
12. Book of Optics Book II [3.52] to [3.66] Summary p.444 for Alhazen's experiments on color; pp.343—394 for his physiologi
13. The Sun's rays are still visible at twilight in the morning and evening due to atmospheric refraction even when the depr
14. In Two New Sciences, there are three 'reviewers': Simplicio, Sagredo, and Salviati, who serve as foil, antagonist, and p
15. "What one does not in the least doubt one should not pretend to doubt; but a man should train himself to doubt," said Pe
16. The philosophy of knowledge arising through observation is also called inductivism. A radical proponent of this approach
17. Hipparchus used his own observations of the stars, as well as the observations by Chaldean and Babylonian astronomers to
18. Isaac Newton (1727) On the System of the World condensed Kepler's law of for the planetary motion of Mars, Galileo's law
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Mathematical_Principles_of_Natural_Philosophy_(1846)/The_System_of_the_World
19. The difference is approximately 43 arc-seconds per century. And the precession of Mercury's orbit is cited in Tests of g
    https://archive.org/stream/comptesrendusheb49acad#page/378/mode/2up
20. simplified and (post-modern) philosophy notwithstanding.Gauch Jr (2002), p. 33
21. and John Ioannidis, in 2005, has shown that not everybody respects the principles of statistical analysis; whether they
22. For instance, extrapolating from a single scientific observation, such as "This experiment yielded these results, so it
23. Occam's razor, sometimes referred to as "ontological parsimony", is roughly stated as: Given a choice between two theori
24. Arthur Eddington, 1920: "The relativity theory of physics reduces everything to relations; that is to say, it is structu
25. The topics of study, as expressed in the vocabulary of its scientists, are approached by a "single unified method". A to
26. Comparing 'epistemic cultures' with Fleck 1935, Thought collectives, (denkkollektiven): Entstehung und Entwicklung einer
27. Twenty-three hundred years ago, Aristotle proposed that a vacuum did not exist in nature; thirteen hundred years later,
28. Alhazen argued the importance of forming questions and subsequently testing them: "How does light travel through transpa
29. In the inquiry-based education paradigm, the stage of "characterization, observation, definition, ..." is more briefly s
30. Never fail to recognize an idea... .— C. S. Peirce, ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE LOGIC OF SCIENCE, SECOND PAPER. —HOW TO MAKE OU
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page%3APopular_Science_Monthly_Volume_12.djvu/300
31. Peirce (1899) First rule of logic (F.R.L) Paragraph 1.136: From the first rule of logic, if we truly desire the goal of
32. Sabra (2007) recounts how Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī came by his manuscript copy of Alhacen's Book of Optics, which by then
33. His assertions in the Opus Majus that "theories supplied by reason should be verified by sensory data, aided by instrume
34. an experimental approach was advocated by Galileo in 1638 with the publication of Two New Sciences.
35. Popper, in his 1963 publication of Conjectures and Refutations argued that merely Trial and Error can stand to be called
36. Lee Smolin, in his 2013 essay "There Is No Scientific Method", espouses two ethical principles. Firstly: "we agree to te
37. The machinery of the mind can only transform knowledge, but never originate it, unless it be fed with facts of observati
38. "At the heart of science is an essential balance between two seemingly contradictory attitudes—an openness to new ideas,
39. The scientific method requires testing and validation a posteriori before ideas are accepted.
40. Friedel Weinert in The Scientist as Philosopher (2004) noted the theme of invariance as a fundamental aspect of a scient
41. Differing accounts of which elements constitute a good theory: Kuhn (1977) identified: accuracy; consistency (both inte
42. Hawking & Mlodinow on criteria for a good theory: "The above criteria are obviously subjective. Elegance, for example, i
43. There is no universally agreed upon definition of the method of science. This was expressed with Neurath's boat already
44. "The sociology of knowledge is concerned with "the relationship between human thought and the social context in which it
45. Stillwell's review (p. 381) of Poincaré's efforts on the Euler characteristic notes that it took five iterations for Poi
46. Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
47. Oxford Dictionaries: British and World English
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48. Oxford English Dictionary
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49. Hibbert Journal
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50. Popper (1959), p. 273.
51. Gauch (2003), p. 3: "The scientific method 'is often misrepresented as a fixed sequence of steps,' rather than being see
52. William Whewell, History of Inductive Science (1837), and in Philosophy of Inductive Science (1840)
53. PNAS Nexus
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54. Dunbar, K., & Fugelsang, J. (2005). Causal Thinking in Science: How Scientists and Students Interpret the Unexpected. In
55. The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity: A Study in Sociological Semantics and the Sociology of Science
56. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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57. Elizabeth Asmis (1985) Epicurus' Scientific Method. Cornell University Press
58. Alhacen (c.1035) Treatise on Light (رسالة في الضوء) as cited in Shmuel Sambursky, ed. (1975) Physical thought from the P
    https://archive.org/details/physicalthoughtf0000unse/page/136/mode/2up
59. Smith (2010) Book 7, [4.28] p.270
60. Alhazen, Treatise on Light (رسالة في الضوء), translated into English from German by M. Schwarz, from "Abhandlung über da
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61. Ptolemy's Theory of Visual Perception: An English Translation of the Optics
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62. Alikuzai (2013), p. 154.
63. Rozhanskaya & Levinova (1996).
64. Bacon, Opus Majus, Bk.&VI.
65. Borlik (2011), p. 132.
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66. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
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67. The Forgotten Genius: The biography of Robert Hooke (1635–1703)
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68. The posthumous works of Robert Hooke, M.D. S.R.S. Geom. Prof. Gresh. etc
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69. The Process of Science
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70. Isaac Newton's Scientific Method: Turning Data into Evidence about Gravity and Cosmology
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71. various papers
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72. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
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73. Galileo Galilei (1638).
74. Sanches (1988).
75. Lisa Downing, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021) George Berkeley, 3.2.3 Scientific explanation
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76. Margaret Atherton (ed.) 1999 The Empiricists
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77. Godfrey-Smith (2003), p. 236.
78. Thurs (2011).
79. Science Rules: A Historical Introduction to Scientific Methods
80. Cowles (2020), p. 264
81. Conjectures and Refutations
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82. "There is No Scientific Method"
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83. Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science
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84. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Volume 18
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85. Taleb (2007), p. 72 lists ways to avoid the narrative fallacy and confirmation bias; the narrative fallacy being a subst
86. Theories of Scientific Method: An Introduction
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87. Scientific Method: How Science Works, Fails to Work, and Pretends to Work
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88. "Whatever Happened to History of Science?"
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89. "Philosophy [i.e., physics] is written in this grand book – I mean the universe – which stands continually open to our g
90. Gauch (2003), p. xv: "The thesis of this book, as outlined in Chapter One, is that there are general principles applicab
91. Maribel Fernández (Dec 2007) Unification Algorithms Archived 2024-12-07 at the Wayback Machine
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92. Lindberg (2007), pp. 2–3: "There is a danger that must be avoided. ... If we wish to do justice to the historical enterp
93. Gauch (2003), p. 3.
94. Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science
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95. Brody (1993), p. 10 calls this an epistemic cycle; these cycles can occur at high levels of abstraction.
96. Popular Science Monthly
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97. Peirce, Charles S., Collected Papers v. 5, in paragraph 582, from 1898: "... [rational] inquiry of every type, fully car
98. Einstein & Infeld (1938), p. 92: "To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, re
99. Journal of the American Society for Information Science
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100. Gauch (2003), esp. chapters 5–8.
101. René Descartes (1637) Discourse on the Method/Part 2 Archived 2021-09-01 at the Wayback Machine Part II
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102. McCarty (1985), p. 252.
103. McElheny (2004), p. 34.
104. Translational and Experimental Clinical Research
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105. Andreas Vesalius, Epistola, Rationem, Modumque Propinandi Radicis Chynae Decocti (1546), p. 141. Quoted and translated i
106. Crick, Francis (1994), The Astonishing Hypothesis ISBN 0-684-19431-7 p. 20
107. McElheny (2004), p. 40: October 1951 — "That's what a helix should look like!" Crick exclaimed in delight (This is the C
108. Judson (1979), p. 157. "'The structure that we propose is a three-chain structure, each chain being a helix' – Linus Pau
109. McElheny (2004), pp. 49–50: January 28, 1953 — Watson read Pauling's pre-print, and realized that in Pauling's model, DN
110. The World as I See It
111. Dewey (1910), p. 26
112. Aristotle (trans. 1853) Prior Analytics 2.25 Archived 2021-09-10 at the Wayback Machine via Wikisource
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113. Popular Science Monthly
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114. Glen (1994), pp. 37–38.
115. Science
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116. Leon Lederman, for teaching physics first, illustrates how to avoid confirmation bias: Ian Shelton, in Chile, was initia
117. Judson (1979), pp. 137–138: "Watson did enough work on Tobacco mosaic virus to produce the diffraction pattern for a hel
118. McElheny (2004), p. 43: June 1952 — Watson had succeeded in getting X-ray pictures of TMV showing a diffraction pattern
119. Cochran W, Crick FHC and Vand V. (1952) "The Structure of Synthetic Polypeptides. I. The Transform of Atoms on a Helix",
120. McElheny (2004), p. 68: Nature April 25, 1953.
121. In March 1917, the Royal Astronomical Society announced that on May 29, 1919, the occasion of a total eclipse of the sun
122. NOVA
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123. Cynthia Wolberger (2021) Photograph 51 explained
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124. McElheny (2004), p. 52: Friday, January 30, 1953. Tea time — Franklin confronts Watson and his paper – "Of course it [Pa
125. Watson (1968), p. 167: "The instant I saw the picture my mouth fell open and my pulse began to race." Page 168 shows the
126. Peirce, Charles S. (1902), Carnegie application, see MS L75.329330, from Draft D Archived 2011-05-24 at the Wayback Mach
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127. Collected Papers
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128. McElheny (2004), pp. 57–59: Saturday, February 28, 1953 — Watson found the base-pairing mechanism which explained Charga
129. Mill, John Stuart, "A System of Logic", University Press of the Pacific, Honolulu, 2002, ISBN 1-4102-0252-6.
130. Information, Mechanism, and Meaning
131. National Science Foundation (NSF) (2021) NSF Reports Archived 2021-08-17 at the Wayback Machine and News Archived 2021-
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132. lhc-commissioning.web.cern.ch
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133. "ligo.caltech.edu (1999) Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory"
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134. "NIF (2021) What Is the National Ignition Facility?"
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135. "ISS (2021) International Space Station"
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136. "JWST (2021) WEBB Space Telescope"
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137. James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) (12 Nov 2021) James Webb Space Telescope Deployment Sequence (Nominal) Archived 2021-1
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138. "James Crutchfield (2003) "Complex Systems Theory?""
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139. al-Battani, De Motu Stellarum translation from Arabic to Latin in 1116, as cited by E. S. Kennedy, A Survey of Islamic A
140. Smith (2001b).
141. Smith (2010), p. 220 Book Seven covers refraction.
142. McElheny (2004), p. 53: The weekend (January 31 – February 1) — After seeing photo 51, Watson informed Bragg of the X-ra
143. McElheny (2004), p. 54: Sunday, February 8, 1953 — Maurice Wilkes gave Watson and Crick permission to work on models, as
144. McElheny (2004), p. 56: Jerry Donohue, on sabbatical from Pauling's lab and visiting Cambridge, advises Watson that the
145. Watson (1968), pp. 194–197: "Suddenly I became aware that an adenine-thymine pair held together by two hydrogen bonds wa
146. McElheny (2004), p. 57: Saturday, February 28, 1953 — Watson tried 'like with like' and admitted these base pairs didn't
147. Goldstein, Bernard R. (1977) Ibn Mu'adh's "(1079) Treatise On Twilight and the Height of the Atmosphere Archived 2022-09
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148. Physics Today
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149. "Reconstruction of Galileo Galilei's experiment – the inclined plane"
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150. PLOS Medicine
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151. Fleck (1979), pp. xxvii–xxviii.
152. "NIH Data Sharing Policy ."
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153. The logic of scientific discovery
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154. "Science: Conjectures and refutations"
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155. Gauch Jr (2002), ch. 1.
156. Physical Review
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157. Patterns of Discovery
158. Neptune: From Grand Discovery to a World Revealed
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159. The Demon-Haunted World
160. Godfrey-Smith (2003), pp. 19–74.
161. The Logic of Interdisciplinarity
162. The Monist
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163. The Grand Design
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164. Gauch Jr (2002), pp. 29–31.
165. Needham & Wang (1954), p. 166 shows how the 'flying gallop' image propagated from China to the West.
166. Goldhaber & Nieto (2010), p. 940.
167. Ronald R. Sims (2003). Ethics and corporate social responsibility: Why giants fall. p. 21: "'A myth is a belief given un
168. Goldhaber & Nieto (2010), p. 942.
169. Lakatos (1976), pp. 1–19.
170. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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171. Gauch Jr (2002), Quotes from p. 30, expanded on in ch. 4: Gauch gives two simplified statements on what he calls "ration
172. Science Release
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173. Reason and Rationality
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174. Brad Snowder's Astronomy Pages ( Precession of the Equinox
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175. Isaac Newton (1727) On the System of the World
176. Postgraduate Medical Journal
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177. PLOS Medicine
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178. Risk Savvy
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179. Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning
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180. Voit 2019.
181. Philosophy Of Natural Science
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182. Francis Bacon, Novum Organum
183. Gauch (2003), p. 159.
184. Peirce, Charles S., Carnegie application (L75, 1902), New Elements of Mathematics v. 4, pp. 37–38: "For it is not suffic
185. Stanovich, Keith E. (2007). How to Think Straight About Psychology. Boston: Pearson Education. p. 123
186. Brody (1993), pp. 44–45.
187. Strickberger's Evolution
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188. Assembling the tree of life
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189. The Road since Structure: Philosophical Essays, 1970–1993
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190. Kuhn, T.S. (1977) Objectivity, Value Judgment, and Theory Choice. In: Kuhn, T.S., Ed., The Essential Tension—Selected St
191. The Indispensability of Mathematics
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192. The Scientist as Philosopher: Philosophical Consequences of Great Scientific Discoveries
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193. A new way to explain explanation
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194. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition)
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195. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2013 Edition)
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196. The Grand Design
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197. PhilSci Archive
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198. Gauch (2003), p. 269.
199. The American Economist
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200. Fleck (1979), p. 27.
201. European Journal of Social Psychology
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202. Symmetries and reflections
203. Relativity: The Special and the General Theory
204. The philosophy of Karl Popper
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205. Mathematical Apocrypha Redux: More Stories and Anecdotes of Mathematicians and the Mathematical
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206. Einstein, Albert (1936, 1956) One may say "the eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility." From the article
207. Weinberg, (1995) "The Methods of Science … And Those By Which We Live", page: 8
208. Otto Neurath and the Unity of Science
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209. Science & Society
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210. Kevin Knight (1989) Unification: A Multidisciplinary Survey ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 21, No. 1, March 1989
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211. Feyerabend, Paul K., Against Method, Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge, 1st published, 1975. Reprinted, Vers
212. Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society
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213. European Journal for Philosophy of Science
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214. Science Education
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215. International Journal of Science Education
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216. Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method
217. School Science and Mathematics
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218. The American Biology Teacher
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219. Scientific Method in Brief
220. History of Education Quarterly
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221. The American Biology Teacher
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222. Translational and Experimental Clinical Research
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223. Traditionally 5, after Dewey's 1910 idea of a "complete act of thought". He held that thought-process best represented s
224. Introduction to psychology
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225. Specifically, the scientific method has featured in introductory science courses for biology, medicine, and psychology.
226. Science & Education
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227. Journal of College Science Teaching
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228. Science & Education
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229. Education, Citizenship and Social Justice
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230. Here, King quotes Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckman, The Social Construction of Reality (London, 1967), 16.
231. History and Theory
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232. "Kamal al-Din Abu'l Hasan Muhammad Al-Farisi"
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233. Social Studies of Science
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234. Epistemic cultures: how the sciences make knowledge
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235. As cited in Fleck (1979), p. 27, Fleck (1979), pp. 38–50
236. Fleck (1979), p. xxviii
237. Fleck (1979), p. 27
238. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
239. Feyerabend, Paul K (1960) "Patterns of Discovery" The Philosophical Review (1960) vol. 69 (2) pp. 247–252
240. For example: Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels with Science, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1
241. Singapore Medical Journal
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242. The Incomplete Guide to the Art of Discovery
243. "Antifragility — or — The Property Of Disorder-Loving Systems"
     https://web.archive.org/web/20130507124322/http://www.edge.org/q2011/q11_3.html
244. t
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245. Anderson, Chris (2008) The End of Theory: The Data Deluge Makes the Scientific Method Obsolete Archived 2021-05-02 at th
     http://www.uvm.edu/~pdodds/files/papers/others/2008/anderson2008a.pdf
246. Ludwik Fleck (1979) Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact Archived 2021-08-26 at the Wayback Machine
     https://worldpece.org/sites/default/files/artifacts/media/pdf/fleck_et_al._-_2008_-_genesis_and_development_of_a_scientific_fact.pdf
247. Pólya (1957), p. 131 in the section on 'Modern heuristic': "When we are working intensively, we feel keenly the progress
248. Huai-Dong Cao and Xi-Ping Zhu (3 Dec 2006) Hamilton-Perelman's Proof of the Poincaré Conjecture and the Geometrization C
     https://arxiv.org/pdf/math/0612069.pdf
249. George Lakoff and Rafael E. Núñez (2000) Where Mathematics Comes From
250. "If you can't solve a problem, then there is an easier problem you can solve: find it." —Pólya (1957), p. 114
251. George Pólya (1954), Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume I: Induction and Analogy in Mathematics.
252. George Pólya (1954), Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume II: Patterns of Plausible Reasoning.
253. Pólya (1957), p. 142.
254. Pólya (1957), p. 144.
255. Lakatos (1976) documents the development, by generations of mathematicians, of Euler's formula for polyhedra.
256. H.S.M. Coxeter (1973) Regular Polytopes ISBN 9780486614809, Chapter IX "Poincaré's proof of Euler's formula"
257. Charles A. Weibel
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258. Henri Poincaré, Sur l'analysis situs, Comptes rendusde l'Academie des Sciences 115 (1892), 633–636. as cited by Lakatos
259. John Stillwell, reviewer (Apr 2014). Notices of the AMS. 61 (4), pp. 378–383, on Jeremy Gray's (2013) Henri Poincaré: A
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260. Lakatos (1976), p. 55.
261. Mackay (1991), p. 100.