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Robert Mugabe

Updated: Wikipedia source

Robert Mugabe

Robert Gabriel Mugabe (; Shona: [muɡaɓe]; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) was a Zimbabwean revolutionary and politician who served as the leader of Zimbabwe from 1980 until he was deposed in a coup in 2017. He served as the first Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from internationally recognised independence in 1980 to 1987, then as the second president of Zimbabwe from 1987 to 2017. He was also the Leader of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) from 1975 to 1980 and led its successor political party, the ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF) as its First Secretary, from 1980 to 2017. Ideologically an African nationalist, during the 1970s and 1980s he identified as a Marxist–Leninist, and from the 1990s as a socialist. Mugabe was born to a poor Shona family in Kutama, then in Southern Rhodesia. Educated at Kutama College and the University of Fort Hare, he worked as a schoolteacher. Angered by white minority rule of his homeland within the British Empire, Mugabe embraced Marxism and joined African nationalists calling for an independent state controlled by the black majority. After making antigovernmental comments, he was convicted of sedition and imprisoned between 1964 and 1974. On release, he fled to Mozambique, established his leadership of ZANU, and oversaw its role in the Rhodesian Bush War, fighting Ian Smith's predominantly white government. He reluctantly participated in peace talks in the United Kingdom that resulted in the Lancaster House Agreement, putting an end to the war. In the 1980 general election, Mugabe led ZANU-PF to victory, becoming prime minister when the country, now renamed Zimbabwe, gained internationally recognised independence later that year. Mugabe's administration expanded healthcare and education and—despite his professed desire for a socialist society—adhered largely to mainstream economic policies. Mugabe's calls for racial reconciliation failed to stem growing white emigration, while relations with Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) also deteriorated. In the Gukurahundi of 1982–1987, Mugabe's 5th Brigade crushed ZAPU-linked opposition in Matabeleland in a campaign that killed at least 20,000 people. Internationally, he sent troops into the Second Congo War and chaired the Non-Aligned Movement (1986–1989), the Organisation of African Unity (1997–1998), and the African Union (2015–2016). Pursuing decolonisation, Mugabe emphasised the redistribution of land controlled by white farmers to landless blacks; from 2000 he encouraged black Zimbabweans to violently seize white-owned farms. Food production was severely impacted, leading to famine, hyperinflation, economic decline, and foreign sanctions. By 2007, Zimbabwe had the highest inflation rate in the world, at 7600%. Opposition to Mugabe grew, but he was re-elected in 2002, 2008, and 2013 through campaigns dominated by violence, electoral fraud, and nationalistic appeals to his rural Shona voter base. In 2017, members of his party ousted him in a coup, replacing him with former vice president Emmerson Mnangagwa. Having dominated Zimbabwe's politics for nearly four decades, Mugabe was a controversial figure. He was praised as a revolutionary hero of the African liberation struggle who helped free Zimbabwe from British colonialism, imperialism, and white minority rule. Critics accused Mugabe of being a dictator responsible for economic mismanagement and widespread corruption and human rights abuses, including anti-white racism, crimes against humanity, and genocide.

Infobox

Prime Minister
Morgan Tsvangirai (2009–2013)
Vice President
See list First Vice Presidents Simon Muzenda(1987–2003) Joice Mujuru(2004–2014) Emmerson Mnangagwa(2014–2017) Second Vice Presidents Joshua Nkomo(1990–1999) Joseph Msika(1999–2009) John Nkomo(2009–2013) Phelekezela Mphoko(2014–2017)
Preceded by
Zail Singh
Succeeded by
Janez Drnovšek
President
Canaan Banana
Deputy
Simon Muzenda
Second Secretary
Joseph Msika John Nkomo Joice Mujuru Emmerson Mnangagwa
Leader
Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma
Born
Robert Gabriel Mugabe(1924-02-21)21 February 1924Kutama, Southern Rhodesia
Died
6 September 2019(2019-09-06) (aged 95)Gleneagles Hospital, Singapore
Resting place
Kutama, Zimbabwe
Political party
ANCYL (1949–1952) NDP (1960–1961) ZAPU (1961–1963) ZANU (1963–1987) ZANU–PF (1987–2017)
Spouses
mw- Sally Hayfron (m. 1961; died 1992) Grace Marufu (m. 1996)
Children
4, including Bona and Robert Jr
Alma mater
University of Fort Hare University of South Africa University of London International Programmes
Party
ANCYL (1949–1952) NDP (1960–1961) ZAPU (1961–1963) ZANU (1963–1987) ZANU–PF (1987–2017)

Tables

· Further reading
Preceded byHerbert Chitepo
Preceded byHerbert Chitepo
Party political offices
Preceded byHerbert Chitepo
Party political offices
Leader of Zimbabwe African National Union 1975–1987
Party political offices
Position abolished
New political partyMerger of ZANU and ZAPU
New political partyMerger of ZANU and ZAPU
Party political offices
New political partyMerger of ZANU and ZAPU
Party political offices
Leader of Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front 1987–2017
Party political offices
Succeeded byEmmerson Mnangagwa
Political offices
Political offices
Party political offices
Political offices
Preceded byAbel Muzorewaas Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia
Preceded byAbel Muzorewaas Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia
Party political offices
Preceded byAbel Muzorewaas Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia
Party political offices
Prime Minister of Zimbabwe 1980–1987
Party political offices
VacantPosition suspendedTitle next held byMorgan Tsvangirai
Preceded byCanaan Banana
Preceded byCanaan Banana
Party political offices
Preceded byCanaan Banana
Party political offices
President of Zimbabwe 1987–2017
Party political offices
Succeeded byEmmerson Mnangagwa
Diplomatic posts
Diplomatic posts
Party political offices
Diplomatic posts
Preceded byZail Singh
Preceded byZail Singh
Party political offices
Preceded byZail Singh
Party political offices
Secretary General of the Non-Aligned Movement 1986–1989
Party political offices
Succeeded byJanez Drnovšek
Preceded byPaul Biya
Preceded byPaul Biya
Party political offices
Preceded byPaul Biya
Party political offices
Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity 1997–1998
Party political offices
Succeeded byBlaise Compaoré
Preceded byMohamed Ould Abdel Aziz
Preceded byMohamed Ould Abdel Aziz
Party political offices
Preceded byMohamed Ould Abdel Aziz
Party political offices
Chairperson of the African Union 2015–2016
Party political offices
Succeeded byIdriss Déby
Party political offices
Preceded byHerbert Chitepo
Leader of Zimbabwe African National Union 1975–1987
Position abolished
New political partyMerger of ZANU and ZAPU
Leader of Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front 1987–2017
Succeeded byEmmerson Mnangagwa
Political offices
Preceded byAbel Muzorewaas Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia
Prime Minister of Zimbabwe 1980–1987
VacantPosition suspendedTitle next held byMorgan Tsvangirai
Preceded byCanaan Banana
President of Zimbabwe 1987–2017
Succeeded byEmmerson Mnangagwa
Diplomatic posts
Preceded byZail Singh
Secretary General of the Non-Aligned Movement 1986–1989
Succeeded byJanez Drnovšek
Preceded byPaul Biya
Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity 1997–1998
Succeeded byBlaise Compaoré
Preceded byMohamed Ould Abdel Aziz
Chairperson of the African Union 2015–2016
Succeeded byIdriss Déby

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  286. Blair 2002, p. 42; Meredith 2002, pp. 17, 128.
  287. Meredith 2002, p. 18.
  288. Onslow & Redding 2009, p. 68.
  289. Meredith 2002, p. 129.
  290. Meredith 2002, p. 131; Norman 2008, p. 115.
  291. BBC African Perspective
    https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7899057.stm
  292. Meredith 2002, pp. 129–130.
  293. Meredith 2002, pp. 147–148.
  294. Meredith 2002, p. 148.
  295. Blair 2002, p. 41; Meredith 2002, p. 148.
  296. Blair 2002, p. 41; Meredith 2002, pp. 149–150.
  297. Meredith 2002, p. 151.
  298. Meredith 2002, pp. 151–152.
  299. Meredith 2002, p. 153.
  300. Blair 2002, p. 133; Holland 2008, pp. 95, 97.
  301. Holland 2008, p. 102.
  302. Blair 2002, p. 134; Holland 2008, p. 95.
  303. Blair 2002, p. 135.
  304. Blair 2002, p. 136.
  305. Blair 2002, p. 138.
  306. Blair 2002, p. 49; Norman 2008, p. 119.
  307. Sithole 2001, p. 163; Meredith 2002, p. 163.
  308. Sithole 2001, p. 163.
  309. Sithole 2001, p. 164; Blair 2002, p. 58; Meredith 2002, p. 165.
  310. Sithole 2001, p. 165.
  311. Holland 2008, p. 138.
  312. Sithole 2001, p. 160.
  313. Meredith 2002, pp. 178–179.
  314. Blair 2002, p. 158.
  315. Blair 2002, pp. 165–166; Norman 2008, p. 86.
  316. Blair 2002, p. 164; Meredith 2002, p. 188; Norman 2008, p. 86.
  317. Meredith 2002, p. 188.
  318. Meredith 2002, p. 167.
  319. Blair 2002, p. 73; Meredith 2002, p. 169.
  320. Meredith 2002, p. 169.
  321. Blair 2002, p. 180.
  322. Meredith 2002, p. 171.
  323. Meredith 2002, p. 184.
  324. Blair 2002, p. 76; Meredith 2002, p. 170.
  325. Blair 2002, p. 200; Meredith 2002, pp. 17–8.
  326. Blair 2002, pp. 198–199, 214–219; Meredith 2002, pp. 204–205; Norman 2008, p. 105.
  327. Blair 2002, pp. 218, 238; Meredith 2002, p. 207.
  328. Meredith 2002, p. 223.
  329. Howard-Hassmann 2010, p. 899.
  330. Howard-Hassmann 2010, p. 900.
  331. Meredith 2002, p. 203.
  332. Blair 2002, p. 236; Howard-Hassmann 2010, p. 899.
  333. Howard-Hassmann 2010, p. 901.
  334. Norman 2008, p. 122.
  335. Norman 2008, p. 135.
  336. Howard-Hassmann 2010, p. 903.
  337. Howard-Hassmann 2010, p. 904.
  338. Howard-Hassmann 2010, p. 907.
  339. Norman 2008, p. 121.
  340. Blair 2002, p. 196; Norman 2008, p. 86.
  341. Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2009, p. 1140; Onslow & Redding 2009, p. 68.
  342. Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2009, p. 1140.
  343. Onslow & Redding 2009, p. 69.
  344. Meredith 2002, p. 191.
  345. Meredith 2002, p. 226.
  346. Meredith 2002, p. 227.
  347. Meredith 2002, pp. 228–229.
  348. Meredith 2002, p. 231; Norman 2008, pp. 88–89.
  349. The Daily Telegraph
    https://web.archive.org/web/20080408002545/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2005%2F06%2F03%2Fwzim03.xml
  350. Meredith 2002, pp. 221–222.
  351. Meredith 2002, p. 222.
  352. Howard-Hassmann 2010, p. 912.
  353. Howard-Hassmann 2010, p. 911.
  354. Onslow & Redding 2009, p. 70.
  355. Howard-Hassmann 2010, p. 910.
  356. Norman 2008, p. 131; Tendi 2011, p. 316.
  357. "ICC World Cup 2003: Andy Flower and Henry Olonga don black armbands"
    http://www.cricketcountry.com/articles/icc-world-cup-2003-andy-flower-and-henry-olonga-don-black-armbands-246948
  358. Howard-Hassmann 2010, p. 913.
  359. Tendi 2011, pp. 316–317.
  360. BBC News
    https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-50169598.amp
  361. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/27/tony-blair-military-intervention-zimbabwe-claim
  362. The Independent
    https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/lord-guthrie-tonys-general-turns-defence-into-an-attack-399865.html
  363. Norman 2008, p. 143.
  364. Zimbabwe Metro
    https://archive.today/20080616052813/http://zimbabwemetro.com/2008/04/02/final-house-of-assembly-results/
  365. Norman 2008, p. 157.
  366. Tendi 2013, p. 963.
  367. Norman 2008, p. 144.
  368. Norman 2008, p. 146.
  369. Howard-Hassmann 2010, p. 905.
  370. Norman 2008, p. 173.
  371. Norman 2008, pp. 170–171.
  372. Norman 2008, p. 175.
  373. The CNN Wire
    https://web.archive.org/web/20090528140238/http://cnnwire.blogs.cnn.com/2008/06/29/mugabe-wins-by-9-to-1-margin/
  374. "edition.cnn.com, Rivals sign Zimbabwe power-share deal"
    http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/09/15/zimbabwe.powershare/?iref=mpstoryview
  375. Chigora & Guzura 2011, p. 24.
  376. Onslow & Redding 2009, p. 63.
  377. Tendi 2013, p. 965.
  378. Tendi 2013, p. 964.
  379. Gallagher 2015, pp. 27–28.
  380. Tendi 2013, p. 967.
  381. Tendi 2013, p. 969.
  382. Tendi 2013, p. 966.
  383. Gallagher 2015, pp. 38–39.
  384. Gallagher 2015, p. 28.
  385. Gallagher 2015, pp. 35–36.
  386. Gallagher 2015, pp. 41–42.
  387. Gallagher 2015, pp. 43–44.
  388. Reuters
    https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe-idUSBREA1M0P420140223?feedType=RSS&feedName=worldNews
  389. The Guardian
    https://web.archive.org/web/20141209180429/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/09/robert-mugabe-sacks-ministers-zimbabwe-joice-mujuru
  390. Reuters
    https://web.archive.org/web/20150130152759/http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0L313I20150130
  391. The Independent
    https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/zimbabwes-robert-mugabe-will-rule-until-he-is-100-from-special-wheelchair-his-wife-claims-a6744386.html
  392. "'Until God says come': turning 92, Zimbabwe's Mugabe refuses to relinquish power"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20160219095654/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/until-god-says-come-tu/2526514.html
  393. "Zimbabwe: Mugabe Celebrates 93rd Birthday, Pledges to Remain in Power"
    http://www.africanews.com/2017/02/25/zimbabwe-mugabe-celebrate-93rd-birthday-pledges-to-remain-in-power/
  394. "Zimbabwe's Mugabe Says Will Not Impose Successor, Party Will Choose"
    https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2017-02-25/zimbabwes-mugabe-says-will-not-impose-successor-party-will-choose
  395. Foreign Policy
    https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/05/26/mugabe-and-entourage-live-it-up-in-cancun-while-zimbabwe-suffers-africa-mexico-business-trips-corruption/
  396. "Mugabe 'not given chance to speak in Mexico'"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20170528033156/http://www.news24.com/Africa/Zimbabwe/mugabe-not-given-chance-to-speak-in-mexico-leaves-in-a-huff-20170526
  397. BBC News
    https://web.archive.org/web/20170728150404/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-40740359
  398. BBC News
    https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-41702662
  399. BBC News
    https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-41713919
  400. "Harare fumes after WHO rescinds Mugabe goodwill appointment | IOL News"
    https://www.iol.co.za/news/special-features/zimbabwe/harare-fumes-after-who-rescinds-mugabe-goodwill-appointment-11667175
  401. "Zimbabwe in turmoil after apparent coup"
    https://edition.cnn.com/2017/11/14/africa/zimbabwe-military-chief-treasonable-conduct/index.html
  402. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2017/nov/15/zimbabwe-army-control-harare-coup-robert-mugabe-live
  403. SBS News
    http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2017/11/16/stunned-zimbabweans-face-uncertain-future-without-mugabe
  404. "Ruling party sacks Mugabe as leader"
    https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-42043370
  405. The New York Times
    https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/19/world/africa/zimbabwe-robert-mugabe.html
  406. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/nov/21/robert-mugabe-impeachment-proceedings-begin-in-zimbabwe-emmerson-mnangagwa
  407. BBC News
    https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-42071488
  408. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/nov/25/robert-mugabe-payoff-family-immunity-zimbabwe-zanu-pf
  409. Daily News
    https://www.dailynews.co.zw/articles/2017/12/11/mugabe-mphoko-due-for-big-payout
  410. "Zimbabwe Court Says Mugabe Stepped Down Freely, Voluntarily"
    https://www.voazimbabwe.com/a/zimbabwe-mugabe-resigned-voluntarily-freely/4486081.html
  411. Evening Standard
    https://www.standard.co.uk/news/world/robert-mugabes-lavish-retirement-package-includes-firstclass-flights-a-fivebedroom-house-and-23-a3728106.html
  412. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/16/robert-mugabe-zimbabwe-disgraceful-coup-must-be-undone
  413. "New party forms in Zimbabwe with Mugabe's backing"
    https://news24.com/Africa/Zimbabwe/new-party-forms-in-zimbabwe-with-mugabes-backing-20180305
  414. "New Mugabe-backed party 'misplaced, mere political profiling'"
    https://www.iol.co.za/news/africa/new-mugabe-backed-party-misplaced-mere-political-profiling-13608294
  415. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/29/robert-mugabe-zanu-pf-zimbabwe-election
  416. "Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe refuses to back successor Mnangagwa in election"
    https://news.sky.com/story/zimbabwes-robert-mugabe-refuses-to-back-successor-mnangagwa-in-election-11453221
  417. "Zimbabwe's Mugabe says he won't vote for successor Mnangagwa"
    https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/07/zimbabwe-mugabe-won-vote-successor-mnangagwa-180729100342113.html
  418. "Ex-Zimbabwe President Mugabe 'unable to walk'"
    https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-46329242
  419. "Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe's strongman ex-president, dies aged 95"
    https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49604152
  420. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95
  421. Reuters
    https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ
  422. The Straits Times
    https://www.straitstimes.com/world/africa/ex-zimbabwe-leader-robert-mugabe-dies-at-95-bbc
  423. "Robert Mugabe has died; Zimbabwe's founding father turned strongman dies at 95 cause of death unknown"
    https://www.cbsnews.com/news/robert-mugabe-has-died-zimbabwes-founding-father-turned-strongman-dies-at-95-cause-of-death-unknown-2019-09-06/
  424. Eyewitness News
    https://web.archive.org/web/20230426153501/https://www.ewn.co.za/2019/09/23/mnangagwa-reveals-mugabe-was-being-treated-for-cancer-before-his-death#error=login_required&state=aa7561d7-211f-4681-ba56-2b64ce9cd1bd
  425. The Herald
    https://web.archive.org/web/20240722065156/https://www.herald.co.zw/former-president-mugabe-cause-of-death-revealed/
  426. CNA
    https://web.archive.org/web/20190911032903/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/robert-mugabe-body-zimbabwe-leaves-singapore-casket-funeral-11893474
  427. "Mugabe's body expected in Zimbabwe, burial place still a mystery"
    https://sg.news.yahoo.com/mugabes-body-expected-zimbabwe-burial-072247758.html
  428. Associated Press
    https://www.apnews.com/ed9ddbffc9e640a99e1dc2821f374838
  429. Associated Press
    https://www.apnews.com/4ffa20cc022d459194b37fc1a850f1d2
  430. "Mugabe burial to delayed for 30 days, nephew says"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20200807034359/https://home.bt.com/news/world-news/mugabe-burial-to-be-delayed-for-30-days-nephew-says-11364394522465
  431. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/12/robert-mugabe-family-reject-government-burial-plans-zimbabwe
  432. "Family accepts to bury Mugabe at Zimbabwe Heroes' Acre"
    https://www.africanews.com/2019/09/13/govt-officials-family-fly-to-singapore-to-bring-mugabe-s-body-to-zimbabwe/
  433. Al Jazeera
    https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/robert-mugabe-buried-week-village-family-190912083607386.html
  434. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/15/pomp-thin-crowds-mixed-feelings-as-robert-mugabe-laid-to-rest
  435. "'The end does not justify the means' say Zimbabwean bishops as Mugabe's funeral takes place"
    https://www.premier.org.uk/News/World/The-end-does-not-justify-the-means-say-Zimbabwean-bishops-as-Mugabe-s-funeral-takes-place
  436. BBC News
    https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49686131
  437. BBC News
    https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49846340
  438. "Mugabe funeral: Zimbabwe ex-president laid to rest in Kutama"
    https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49865776
  439. CNN
    https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/28/africa/zimbabwe-robert-mugabe-buried-intl/index.html?no-st=1569797972
  440. Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2009, p. 1154.
  441. Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2015, p. 1.
  442. Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2009, p. 1141.
  443. Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2009, p. 1150.
  444. Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2009, p. 1142.
  445. Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2009, p. 1143.
  446. Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2009, pp. 1146–1147.
  447. Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2009, p. 1148.
  448. Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2009, p. 1151.
  449. Smith & Simpson 1981, p. 43.
  450. Holland 2008, p. 49.
  451. Holland 2008, p. 65.
  452. Smith & Simpson 1981, p. 15.
  453. Shire 2007, p. 33.
  454. Blair 2002, p. 29.
  455. Meredith 2002b, p. 95.
  456. Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2009, pp. 1139–1140.
  457. Alao 2012, p. xii.
  458. Holland 2008, p. 239.
  459. Blair 2002, p. 25.
  460. Holland 2008, pp. 109–110.
  461. Blair 2002, p. 17.
  462. Smith & Simpson 1981, p. 48.
  463. Holland 2008, p. 174.
  464. Holland 2008, p. 211.
  465. Tendi 2011, pp. 307–308.
  466. Smith & Simpson 1981, pp. 15–16.
  467. Blair 2002, p. 244.
  468. Holland 2008, p. 52.
  469. Holland 2008, p. 183.
  470. Tendi 2013, pp. 964–965.
  471. Holland 2008, p. 51.
  472. Holland 2008, p. 67.
  473. Holland 2008, p. 84.
  474. Holland 2008, p. 95.
  475. Holland 2008, p. 83.
  476. Holland 2008, p. 119.
  477. Norman 2008, p. 163.
  478. Blair 2002, p. 25; Meredith 2002, p. 16.
  479. Meredith 2002, p. 233.
  480. Holland 2008, p. 125.
  481. Holland 2008, p. 25.
  482. Holland 2008, p. 21.
  483. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2005/nov/01/past.politics
  484. Meredith 2002, p. 96.
  485. Holland 2008, p. 23.
  486. Holland 2008, p. 24.
  487. Holland 2008, p. 76.
  488. Meredith 2002, p. 96; Norman 2008, p. 80.
  489. Holland 2008, p. 22.
  490. The New York Times
    https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE7DA1331F93BA15752C0A964958260
  491. Meredith 2002, p. 108.
  492. Meredith 2002, pp. 108–109.
  493. Nehanda Radio
    http://nehandaradio.com/2014/11/16/gucci-grace-mugabe-worlds-first-female-dictator/
  494. BBC News
    https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/744174.stm
  495. The Economist
    https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21726097-scions-despots-post-pictures-their-lavish-lifestyles-social-media
  496. Holland 2008, pp. xiv–xv.
  497. Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2009, p. 1139.
  498. Shire 2007, p. 32.
  499. Shire 2007, p. 35.
  500. Alao 2012, p. xi.
  501. Holland 2008, p. 214.
  502. NDTV.com
    https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/zimbabwes-robert-mugabe-in-surprise-visit-to-malaysia-1471275
  503. Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2015, p. 2.
  504. Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2015, p. 13.
  505. Holland 2008, p. 192.
  506. Holland 2008, p. xx.
  507. Blair 2002, p. 46.
  508. Tendi 2011, p. 307.
  509. Blair 2002, p. 13; Meredith 2002, p. 14; Norman 2008, p. 162; Alao 2012, p. 4.
  510. The Observer
    https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/sep/16/comment.foreignpolicy
  511. BBC News
    https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/698175.stm
  512. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/zimbabwe/article/0,,2048032,00.html
  513. The Independent
    https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/sentamu-urges-mugabe-action-402591.html
  514. Norman 2008, p. 162.
  515. Howard-Hassmann 2010, p. 909.
  516. Howard-Hassmann 2010, p. 917.
  517. Norman 2008, p. 174.
  518. The Times
    https://web.archive.org/web/20081012204017/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article1896047.ece
  519. "Mugabe stripped of degree honour"
    https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/edinburgh_and_east/6724271.stm
  520. Pantograph Punch
    https://pantograph-punch.com/posts/mugabe-public-space
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