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Putumayo genocide

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Putumayo genocide

The Putumayo genocide (Spanish: genocidio del Putumayo) refers to the severe exploitation and subsequent ethnocide of the Indigenous population in the Putumayo region. The booms of raw materials incentivized the exploration and occupation of uncolonised land in the Amazon by several South American countries, gradually leading to the subjugation of the local tribes in the pursuit of rubber extraction. The genocide was primarily perpetrated by the enterprise of Peruvian rubber baron Julio César Arana during the Amazon rubber boom from 1879 to 1911. Arana's company, along with Benjamín Larrañaga, enslaved the Indigenous population and subjected them to dreadful brutality. In 1907, Arana registered the Peruvian Amazon Company on the London Stock Exchange, this company assumed control over Arana's assets in the Putumayo River basin, notably along the Igara Paraná, Cara paraná and Cahuinari tributaries. Arana's company made the local Indigenous population work under deteriorated conditions, which led to mass death as well as extreme punishment. Some of the Indigenous groups exploited by Peruvian and Colombian rubber firms were Huitoto, Bora, Andoque, Ocaina, Nonuya, Muinanes and Resígaros. The main figures of the Peruvian Amazon Company, including Armando Normand, Elías Martinengui, Andrés O'Donnell, and the Rodríguez brothers, committed mass starvation, torture, and killings. The company educated a group of native males—Muchachos de Confianza—in policing their fellow men and torturing them. Nine in every ten targeted Amazonian populations were destroyed in the Putumayo genocide. The company continued its work even after 215 arrest warrants were issued against its workers in 1911. The dissolution of the company did not stop it from providing Arana and his partners with means to subjugate the native population of the Putumayo region. At least 6,719 Indigenous people were forced by administrators of Arana's enterprise to emigrate from their traditional territory in the Putumayo River basin between 1924 and 1930, half of this group perished from disease and other factors after the migrations. Although the genocide is of great historical significance, it remains relatively unknown. Eyewitness accounts collected by Benjamin Saldaña Rocca, Walter Ernest Hardenburg and Roger Casement brought the atrocities to global attention.

Infobox

Location
Colombia and Peru
Date
1879 (1879) – 1930 (1930)
Attack type
Slavery, genocidal rape, torture, crimes against humanity
Deaths
32,000 to 40,000
Perpetrators
Peruvian Amazon Company

Tables

Hildebrando Fuente's estimation of the known Indigenous population in the Putumayo River basin as of 1906[114] · Background › Arana's monopolization of the Putumayo › Consolidation of Arana's enterprise
N/A
N/A
Indigenous nation
Angoteros
Territory
Campuya - San Miguel tributaries
"Trabajan con" ["Working with"]
N/A
Estimated population
1,000
N/A
N/A
Indigenous nation
Macaguajes and Coreguajes
Territory
San Miguel - Gueppi tributaries
"Trabajan con" ["Working with"]
N/A
Estimated population
500
Calderón, Arana & C.
Calderón, Arana & C.
Indigenous nation
Huitotos of the Caraparaná
Territory
Caraparaná
"Trabajan con" ["Working with"]
Calderón, Arana & C.
Estimated population
3,500
Arana, Vega & C.
Arana, Vega & C.
Indigenous nation
Huitotos of the Igaraparná
Territory
Igaraparná
"Trabajan con" ["Working with"]
Arana, Vega & C.
Estimated population
4,000
Arana, Vega & C.
Arana, Vega & C.
Indigenous nation
Ocainas
Territory
Igaraparná
"Trabajan con" ["Working with"]
Arana, Vega & C.
Estimated population
300
Arana, Vega & C.
Arana, Vega & C.
Indigenous nation
Fititas
Territory
Igaraparná
"Trabajan con" ["Working with"]
Arana, Vega & C.
Estimated population
150
Arana, Vega & C.
Arana, Vega & C.
Indigenous nation
Nernuígaros
Territory
Right bank of the Igaraparná
"Trabajan con" ["Working with"]
Arana, Vega & C.
Estimated population
150
Arana, Vega & C.
Arana, Vega & C.
Indigenous nation
Muinanes
Territory
Igaraparná - Upper Cahuinari tributary
"Trabajan con" ["Working with"]
Arana, Vega & C.
Estimated population
800
Arana, Vega & C.
Arana, Vega & C.
Indigenous nation
Nonuyas
Territory
Igaraparná
"Trabajan con" ["Working with"]
Arana, Vega & C.
Estimated population
200
Arana, Vega & C.
Arana, Vega & C.
Indigenous nation
Boras
Territory
Confluence of the Igaraparná with the Putumayo - Middle Cahuinari tributary
"Trabajan con" ["Working with"]
Arana, Vega & C.
Estimated population
3,000
Indigenous nation
Territory
"Trabajan con" ["Working with"]
Estimated population
Angoteros
Campuya - San Miguel tributaries
N/A
1,000
Macaguajes and Coreguajes
San Miguel - Gueppi tributaries
N/A
500
Huitotos of the Caraparaná
Caraparaná
Calderón, Arana & C.
3,500
Huitotos of the Igaraparná
Igaraparná
Arana, Vega & C.
4,000
Ocainas
Igaraparná
Arana, Vega & C.
300
Fititas
Igaraparná
Arana, Vega & C.
150
Nernuígaros
Right bank of the Igaraparná
Arana, Vega & C.
150
Muinanes
Igaraparná - Upper Cahuinari tributary
Arana, Vega & C.
800
Nonuyas
Igaraparná
Arana, Vega & C.
200
Boras
Confluence of the Igaraparná with the Putumayo - Middle Cahuinari tributary
Arana, Vega & C.
3,000
· List of reported massacres
1903
1903
Year
1903
Date
August 10
Location
Abisinia
Description
Abelardo Agüero imprisoned 50 natives in stocks without giving them food or water. When the natives started dying, Agüero tied them to a pole and shot them as target practice with his Mauser revolver.
Reported casualties
50
1903
1903
Year
1903
Date
Not clarified
Location
La Chorrera
Description
30 Indigenous people from the Puineses and Renuicueses nations managed to escape from imprisonment at La Chorrera in 1903 while the property was still partially owned by the Larrañaga family. Rafael Larrañaga gathered a group of around subordinate agents along with muchachos de confianza, they pursued the Indigenous group that escaped from La Chorrera, which were caught, restrained, then killed with machetes and bullets prior to the bodies being burned
Reported casualties
30
1903
1903
Year
1903
Date
September 24
Location
La Chorrera
Description
25-to-40 Ocaina natives were massacred at La Chorrera when they did not meet the weight quota for rubber. The natives were flogged, burnt alive, and then shot. Judge Carlos A. Válcárcel stated there were 25 victims; a report on slavery in Peru by the US State Department describes the same event, citing 30 natives. Eyewitness Daniel Collantes stated 40 natives while describing the same massacre.
Reported casualties
25-40
1903
1903
Year
1903
Date
Not clarified
Location
Ultimo Retiro
Description
José Inocente Fonseca summoned Chontadura, Ocainama, and Utiguene to Ultimo Retiro. Hundreds of natives appeared. Inocente Fonseca then grabbed his rifle, and with six other employees, massacred 150 native men, women and children. After shooting, Fonseca and other perpetrators of the massacre used machetes on the wounded. The bodies were later burnt.
Reported casualties
150
1904
1904
Year
1904
Date
Not clarified
Location
Abisinia
Description
João Baptista Braga, a Brazilian ex-employee of the Peruvian Amazon Company stated on his arrival at Abisinia, Agüero and Augusto Jiminez had eight natives tied to a pole and murdered. These natives were previously placed in the cepo and were "barbarously martyrised" before their execution, which Agüero used as a demonstration of how the prisoners were treated.
Reported casualties
8
1905
1905
Year
1905
Date
March
Location
Not clarified
Description
João Baptista also described the massacre of 35 natives. Baptista was supposed to kill the captives under orders of Abelardo Agüero but refused to do so. Instead, Agüero ordered Augusto Jimenez to execute the natives.
Reported casualties
35
1906
1906
Year
1906
Date
January
Location
Near the Pamá River, six hours from the Morelia station
Description
In response to a native drum sounding the signal for help against the caucheros, Augusto Jimenez ordered the execution of around 30 Andoque captives at Abisinia.
Reported casualties
"About 30"
1906
1906
Year
1906
Date
Not clarified
Location
Abisinia
Description
At Abisinia, James Mapp and other Barbadians witnessed "about eight" natives being taken to a field one by one, and being shot. Abelardo Agüero, who had just returned to the station from Iquitos, ordered these killings. One of the natives from this group was killed because he was missing a foot, which limited his mobility.
Reported casualties
Around 8
1906
1906
Year
1906
Date
"Last days of 1906"
Location
Lower Caqueta River
Description
A group of Colombians made an expedition to the lower Caqueta River with the intention of persuading local natives to extract rubber for them. Twenty Peruvian men armed with rifles attacked the Colombian settlement which was in the process of construction. A group of Peruvian reinforcements led by Armando Normand was sent to help deal with the Colombians. Normand forced the highest-ranking Colombian to tell their boss José de la Paz Gutiérrez to give up all of the weapons he had. According to Roso España, a Colombian who witnessed the event: "Then, in possession of the arms, they began another butchery. The Peruvians discharged their weapons at the Indians who were constructing the roof of the house. These poor unfortunates, pierced by the bullets, some dead, others wounded, rolled off the roof and fell to the ground." The older women were pushed into canoes that were directed into the center of the lake, before they were all shot. According to España: "What they did with the children was still more barbarous, for they jammed them, head-downwards, into the holes that had been dug to receive the posts that were to support the house." Three days later, Normand had the most-senior natives from the captured group clubbed to death.
Reported casualties
At least 25
1907
1907
Year
1907
Date
"Mid 1907"
Location
Matanzas
Description
Armando Normand killed three elderly natives and two daughters; their bodies were eaten by dogs Normand had trained.
Reported casualties
5
1907
1907
Year
1907
Date
October or November 1907
Location
Cahuinari
Description
Arístides Rodríguez led a group of fifty men on a correria in an area referred to as Cahuinari. Genaro Caporo, the eyewitness who testified about this event, stated 150 natives were killed by this group, and that the killings were done with rifles and machetes. Afterwards, the group approached and burnt an unknown number of native houses. Caporo's deposition stated there were at least forty families in these houses.
Reported casualties
More than 150
1910
1910
Year
1910
Date
May, 1910
Location
Between the Caqueta River and Morelia
Description
Thirteen natives were killed on a road during an expedition to hunt down the Native Bora chief Katenere, who was rebelling against the company. Barbadian James Chase, who was on the hunt against Katenere, described the events. The expeditioners took prisoner a number of Katenere's supporters and his wife, though Katenere managed to escape when his house was raided. Company agent Fernand Vasquez ordered most of the killings while en route to Morelia, and were carried out by "muchachos de confianza" accompanying him. On the road and near the approach to Morelia, the final three victims – all adult Boras men – were killed; Vasquez shot one and ordered Cherey to shoot the other two because they were too weak from hunger to keep up with the group. James Chase reported a total of thirteen natives were killed during this incident.
Reported casualties
13
Year
Date
Location
Description
Reported casualties
References
1903
August 10
Abisinia
Abelardo Agüero imprisoned 50 natives in stocks without giving them food or water. When the natives started dying, Agüero tied them to a pole and shot them as target practice with his Mauser revolver.
50
1903
Not clarified
La Chorrera
30 Indigenous people from the Puineses and Renuicueses nations managed to escape from imprisonment at La Chorrera in 1903 while the property was still partially owned by the Larrañaga family. Rafael Larrañaga gathered a group of around subordinate agents along with muchachos de confianza, they pursued the Indigenous group that escaped from La Chorrera, which were caught, restrained, then killed with machetes and bullets prior to the bodies being burned
30
1903
September 24
La Chorrera
25-to-40 Ocaina natives were massacred at La Chorrera when they did not meet the weight quota for rubber. The natives were flogged, burnt alive, and then shot. Judge Carlos A. Válcárcel stated there were 25 victims; a report on slavery in Peru by the US State Department describes the same event, citing 30 natives. Eyewitness Daniel Collantes stated 40 natives while describing the same massacre.
25-40
1903
Not clarified
Ultimo Retiro
José Inocente Fonseca summoned Chontadura, Ocainama, and Utiguene to Ultimo Retiro. Hundreds of natives appeared. Inocente Fonseca then grabbed his rifle, and with six other employees, massacred 150 native men, women and children. After shooting, Fonseca and other perpetrators of the massacre used machetes on the wounded. The bodies were later burnt.
150
1904
Not clarified
Abisinia
João Baptista Braga, a Brazilian ex-employee of the Peruvian Amazon Company stated on his arrival at Abisinia, Agüero and Augusto Jiminez had eight natives tied to a pole and murdered. These natives were previously placed in the cepo and were "barbarously martyrised" before their execution, which Agüero used as a demonstration of how the prisoners were treated.
8
1905
March
Not clarified
João Baptista also described the massacre of 35 natives. Baptista was supposed to kill the captives under orders of Abelardo Agüero but refused to do so. Instead, Agüero ordered Augusto Jimenez to execute the natives.
35
1906
January
Near the Pamá River, six hours from the Morelia station
In response to a native drum sounding the signal for help against the caucheros, Augusto Jimenez ordered the execution of around 30 Andoque captives at Abisinia.
"About 30"
1906
Not clarified
Abisinia
At Abisinia, James Mapp and other Barbadians witnessed "about eight" natives being taken to a field one by one, and being shot. Abelardo Agüero, who had just returned to the station from Iquitos, ordered these killings. One of the natives from this group was killed because he was missing a foot, which limited his mobility.
Around 8
1906
"Last days of 1906"
Lower Caqueta River
A group of Colombians made an expedition to the lower Caqueta River with the intention of persuading local natives to extract rubber for them. Twenty Peruvian men armed with rifles attacked the Colombian settlement which was in the process of construction. A group of Peruvian reinforcements led by Armando Normand was sent to help deal with the Colombians. Normand forced the highest-ranking Colombian to tell their boss José de la Paz Gutiérrez to give up all of the weapons he had. According to Roso España, a Colombian who witnessed the event: "Then, in possession of the arms, they began another butchery. The Peruvians discharged their weapons at the Indians who were constructing the roof of the house. These poor unfortunates, pierced by the bullets, some dead, others wounded, rolled off the roof and fell to the ground." The older women were pushed into canoes that were directed into the center of the lake, before they were all shot. According to España: "What they did with the children was still more barbarous, for they jammed them, head-downwards, into the holes that had been dug to receive the posts that were to support the house." Three days later, Normand had the most-senior natives from the captured group clubbed to death.
At least 25
1907
"Mid 1907"
Matanzas
Armando Normand killed three elderly natives and two daughters; their bodies were eaten by dogs Normand had trained.
5
1907
October or November 1907
Cahuinari
Arístides Rodríguez led a group of fifty men on a correria in an area referred to as Cahuinari. Genaro Caporo, the eyewitness who testified about this event, stated 150 natives were killed by this group, and that the killings were done with rifles and machetes. Afterwards, the group approached and burnt an unknown number of native houses. Caporo's deposition stated there were at least forty families in these houses.
More than 150
1910
May, 1910
Between the Caqueta River and Morelia
Thirteen natives were killed on a road during an expedition to hunt down the Native Bora chief Katenere, who was rebelling against the company. Barbadian James Chase, who was on the hunt against Katenere, described the events. The expeditioners took prisoner a number of Katenere's supporters and his wife, though Katenere managed to escape when his house was raided. Company agent Fernand Vasquez ordered most of the killings while en route to Morelia, and were carried out by "muchachos de confianza" accompanying him. On the road and near the approach to Morelia, the final three victims – all adult Boras men – were killed; Vasquez shot one and ordered Cherey to shoot the other two because they were too weak from hunger to keep up with the group. James Chase reported a total of thirteen natives were killed during this incident.
13
Demographic on the population relocated by the Loayza brothers[370] · The continuance of crime › Continued exploitation
Abisinia (Boras)
Abisinia (Boras)
SECTIONS
Abisinia (Boras)
Males
167
Females
180
Children (females)
120
Children (males)
73
TOTAL
540
Sta. Catalina (Boras)
Sta. Catalina (Boras)
SECTIONS
Sta. Catalina (Boras)
Males
245
Females
212
Children (females)
125
Children (males)
84
TOTAL
666
Sur (Witotos)
Sur (Witotos)
SECTIONS
Sur (Witotos)
Males
169
Females
155
Children (females)
168
Children (males)
103
TOTAL
595
Ultimo Retiro (Witotos)
Ultimo Retiro (Witotos)
SECTIONS
Ultimo Retiro (Witotos)
Males
?
Females
116
Children (females)
105
Children (males)
66
TOTAL
383
Entre Rios (Witotos)
Entre Rios (Witotos)
SECTIONS
Entre Rios (Witotos)
Males
373
Females
380
Children (females)
266
Children (males)
219
TOTAL
1,238
Occidente (Witotos)
Occidente (Witotos)
SECTIONS
Occidente (Witotos)
Males
454
Females
385
Children (females)
199
Children (males)
180
TOTAL
1,218
Andokes (Andokes)
Andokes (Andokes)
SECTIONS
Andokes (Andokes)
Males
127
Females
105
Children (females)
64
Children (males)
65
TOTAL
361
Sabana (Muinanes)
Sabana (Muinanes)
SECTIONS
Sabana (Muinanes)
Males
255
Females
237
Children (females)
113
Children (males)
94
TOTAL
699
Oriente (Ocaina)
Oriente (Ocaina)
SECTIONS
Oriente (Ocaina)
Males
318
Females
257
Children (females)
125
Children (males)
108
TOTAL
808
Chorrera
Chorrera
SECTIONS
Chorrera
Males
80
Females
54
Children (females)
50
Children (males)
27
TOTAL
211
TOTAL
TOTAL
SECTIONS
TOTAL
Males
2,284
Females
2,081
Children (females)
1,335
Children (males)
1,019
TOTAL
6,719
SECTIONS
Males
Females
Children (females)
Children (males)
TOTAL
Abisinia (Boras)
167
180
120
73
540
Sta. Catalina (Boras)
245
212
125
84
666
Sur (Witotos)
169
155
168
103
595
Ultimo Retiro (Witotos)
?
116
105
66
383
Entre Rios (Witotos)
373
380
266
219
1,238
Occidente (Witotos)
454
385
199
180
1,218
Andokes (Andokes)
127
105
64
65
361
Sabana (Muinanes)
255
237
113
94
699
Oriente (Ocaina)
318
257
125
108
808
Chorrera
80
54
50
27
211
TOTAL
2,284
2,081
1,335
1,019
6,719

References

  1. Prior to the rubber boom, Cinchona and Smilax officinalis (Sarsapilla) were the most-profitable extractive industries in
  2. The Aimenes natives are cited as the first nation to become subjugated at La Chorrera.
  3. Larrañaga sought to attract investment into his rubber firm, however most of the merchants in Pará refused to associate
  4. The Muinane and Nonuyas nations traditional territory was around the Entre Rios, Atenas, La Sabana and Matanzas areas. A
  5. The Calderón Hermanos were originally the owners of El Encanto. In the words of the Peruvian judge which in 1911 investi
  6. "All native joy died in these woods when these half-castes imposed themselves upon this primitive people, and, in place
  7. The Yaguas tribes, which are close to the Putumayo region, were also collecting rubber for Peruvians at Pebas. In 1910 a
  8. The aforementioned settlement was Providencia, which can be found on Eugene Robuchon's map, on the Igaraparana River bel
  9. Cecilio Plata was later killed in a mutiny in 1907 after establishing a rubber collection enterprise on the Caqueta Rive
  10. The Colombian consul-general to Brazil in 1910, Santiago Rozo, provided a memorandum of crimes perpetrated on behalf of
  11. Tobar and Plata both signed the document imposed by Arana's company which stipulated that they would cede their rights t
  12. Some of this information provided to Casement may be found in The Amazon Journal of Roger Casement pages 316-317.
  13. "[Benjamin] Larrañaga died from the symptoms of arsenic poisoning, and his son, as heir to his father's interest, was su
  14. In 1913, Arana stated that he paid £700 in order to acquire Matanzas.
  15. The Barbadian men who gave depositions in 1910 stated there were still old natives in the region when they arrived aroun
  16. Hardenburg: "Thus it is to their interest to extract the greatest amount of rubber in the least possible space of time,
  17. One specific instance from Casement stated: "It was clear that there was no intention paying these people, for there was
  18. According to Casement: "The muchachos have been brutalised, and made to behead, and shoot, to flog and outrage. They are
  19. The quote continues: "And this is called 'civilising' the wild savage Indians".
  20. "I then asked if they ever enquired what had become of, say, a muchacho, whose name might disappear from the list. He [T
  21. This specifically refers to the Atenas rubber station in 1910. There were only three company employees besides the stati
  22. There are at least two different rebellions instigated by muchachos mentioned in Casement's Amazon Journal.
  23. "these were Tizon's own words to Barnes and myself"
  24. The quote continues, "The boy I photoed on Saturday was the muchacho de confianza of Flores, and he, I was told by Donal
  25. Benjamin Saldaña Rocca referred to these raids as "wholesale slaughter of Indians".
  26. Normand's group captured three men and three women and they were tied up then taken to the station of La China, where th
  27. "In this way the Peruvian Commissioner seeks to excuse his country, laying stress on the term 'English company and trade
  28. Regarding the atrocities that occurred during the Putumayo genocide, Walter E. Hardenburg stated: "[a]nd all this, let u
  29. A Peruvian Amazon Company employee named Esteban Angulo testified to the judge that a few days after that massacre, fift
  30. Bishop also noted that there were closer to three fabricos in a year rather than just two.
  31. The journey from Entre Rios to Puerto Peruano could take seven hours on foot. At Puerto Peruano, the Veloz, a boat opera
  32. The quote comes from Roger Casement's 1910 journal.
  33. Casement wrote that "[a]ll the rubber trees for miles around had been killed by Martinengui's driving of the Indians. Th
  34. Casement only spent a few hours at Atenas on the 26th of October, 1910.
  35. Elias Martinengui retired from the Peruvian Amazon Company prior to 1910, and Alfredo Montt assumed his role as manager
  36. Casement said the latex at Atenas was processed into thin strips, "like long sausages of a butcher's shop. It is the 'tr
  37. In one specific fabrico, Santa Catalina brought in 30,000 kg (66,000 lb) of rubber, which added onto the fortune collect
  38. Several Resígaro people, along with several thousands of other Indigenous people, were forced to emigrate from the Putum
  39. "They do not understand how there could exist among any of the Indians such traecherous conduct, or men capable of betra
  40. Among the documents collected by Judge Paredes's commission in 1911, the first documented contact between agents of Aran
  41. During Montt's management of Ultimo Retiro, natives were shot, flogged and deliberately starved to death. According to R
  42. The most notable of these patrons were Ildefonso Gonzalez, David Serrano, Matias Perez, and the Colombian owners of an e
  43. After the Peruvian Amazon Company captured Remolino, they were in a position to prevent natives from using this portage
  44. These Peruvian soldiers were Andeans, and were sent to the Putumayo due to the threat of a fictitious Colombian rebellio
  45. The aforementioned depositions come from Hardenburg's friend Walter Perkins, as well as Carlos Murgaitio and Julio Monte
  46. Zumaeta managed to evade authorities, he left the territory of El Encanto's agency and fled towards the rubber station o
  47. The author of El Proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos states that this massacre occurred "shortly before" the k
  48. Paredes wrote that this was "[a]nother of the perfectly proven massacres," his investigatory commission examined the sit
  49. The Pamá River is a tributary of the Caqueta River
  50. Information regarding this massacre was provided by the Barbadian James Mapp in 1910, and later in two Indigenous testim
  51. Source says "about eight"
  52. The most notable members of this group are Miguel Flores, Armando Blondel, and Filomeno Vasquez. These men were incrimin
  53. "around seventy natives"
  54. Remigio is the son of Juan Bautista Vega, a Colombian business man that was associated with Julio Arana as early as 1890
  55. Nancy Ochoa emphasized that Seminario continued to enslave and oppress the eastern Boras.
  56. Both oral testimonies collected in "La rabia de Yarocamena", which detail a rebellion at Atenas, acknowledge that the af
  57. "The murder of the boss's wife and daughter unleashed fierce repression by the rubber tappers who, after surrounding the
  58. Nancy Ochoa's short oral testimony is corroborated by Oliberio Rimabaqui, Rimabaqui also provided an oral testimony on t
  59. The number of males appears as "%" on the source document. Subtracting the total number of females and children by the s
  60. The Devil's Milk A Social History of Rubber
    https://books.google.com/books?id=UgOhBwAAQBAJ
  61. BBC News
    https://web.archive.org/web/20230127190951/https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias/2012/10/121012_colombia_genocidio_casa_arana_caucho_amazonia_aw
  62. Intimate Frontiers A Literary Geography of the Amazon
    https://books.google.com/books?id=-nJvEAAAQBAJ
  63. Department of State 1913, pp. 119, 160.
  64. Vallve 2010, p. 102.
  65. Thomson 1913, pp. 11–12.
  66. Casement 2003, p. 133.
  67. Vallve 2010, p. 99.
  68. Frontier Road: Power, History, and the Everyday State in the Colombian Amazon
    https://www.academia.edu/34053036
  69. Thomson 1913, pp. 13, 15.
  70. Hardenburg 1912, p. 94.
  71. The Two Americas
    https://books.google.com/books?id=ECW0aIzEvPQC&q=la+sofia
  72. Hardenburg 1912, p. 295.
  73. Paternoster 1913, pp. 26–27.
  74. La vorágine de las Caucherías T1 2014, pp. 24, 82.
  75. Casement 1997, pp. 145–146.
  76. La vorágine de las Caucherías T1 2014, pp. 43–44.
  77. La vorágine de las Caucherías T1 2014, p. 43.
  78. Fuentes 1908, p. 226.
  79. La vorágine de las Caucherías T1 2014, p. 44.
  80. Thomson 1912, p. 13-15. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomson1912 (help)
  81. Précis of the Confidential Report 1911, p. 20.
  82. La vorágine de las Caucherías T1 2014, p. 94.
  83. Casement 1997, p. 145.
  84. Chirif 2009, pp. 86–87.
  85. Valcárcel 1915, pp. 168, 206, 209–210.
  86. Chirif 2009, p. 87.
  87. Précis of the Confidential Report 1911, p. 21.
  88. Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 152. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSlavery_in_Peru1913 (help)
  89. Valcárcel 1915, p. 331.
  90. Putumayo: la vorágine de las Caucherías T2 2014, p. 421. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPutumayo:_la_vorágine_de_las_Cauch
  91. Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 350. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSlavery_in_Peru1913 (help)
  92. La vorágine de las Caucherías T1 2014, pp. 85–86.
  93. Goodman 2009, p. 38.
  94. Fuentes 1908, p. 16,121.
  95. La vorágine de las Caucherías T1 2014, pp. 85–86, 88.
  96. Chirif 2009, pp. 86, 107.
  97. Casement 1997, pp. 241–242.
  98. Casement 1997, pp. 445–446.
  99. Department of State 1913, p. 253.
  100. Rocha 1905, p. 105.
  101. Taussig 1991, p. 26.
  102. La vorágine de las Caucherías T1 2014, p. 89.
  103. Rocha 1905, p. 106-107.
  104. Taussig 1991, p. 26,114.
  105. Rocha 1905, p. 106.
  106. Taussig 1991, p. 27.
  107. Chirif 2009, p. 198.
  108. Taussig 1991, p. 22-28.
  109. Hardenburg 1912, p. 200.
  110. Casement 2003, pp. 688–689.
  111. Thomson 1913, pp. 9, 47.
  112. Department of State 1913, p. 254.
  113. Taussig 1991, p. 22.
  114. Casement 1997, p. 244.
  115. Chirif 2009, pp. 18, 206.
  116. Valcárcel 1915, p. 22,235.
  117. Parliamentary Papers: Select Committee on the Putumayo
    https://books.google.com/books?id=tEkNAQAAIAAJ&q=cannot+escape&pg=PR34
  118. Chirif 2009, pp. 58, 87–88.
  119. Chirif 2009, pp. 87–88.
  120. Parliamentary Papers: Select Committee on the Putumayo
    https://books.google.com/books?id=tEkNAQAAIAAJ&q=cannot+escape&pg=PR34
  121. Chirif 2009, p. 88.
  122. A catalogue of crime 1912, p. 2.
  123. Chirif 2009, pp. 58.
  124. Précis of the Confidential Report 1911, p. 17,21.
  125. Thomson 1913, p. 51.
  126. Pineda Camacho 1992, p. 16.
  127. Hardenburg 1912, p. 350.
  128. Olarte Camacho 1911, pp. 39–40.
  129. Olarte Camacho 1911, p. 154.
  130. En el Putumayo y sus afluentes 1907, pp. 94–95.
  131. Hardenburg 1912, p. 277.
  132. Casement 2003, p. 151.
  133. Taussig 1991, p. 104.
  134. Rocha 1905, pp. 103, 126.
  135. Rocha 1905, pp. 125–126.
  136. Rocha 1905, p. 126.
  137. Casement 1997, p. 316-317.
  138. Casement 2003, p. 152.
  139. Olarte Camacho 1911, p. 37,41,154.
  140. La vorágine de las Caucherías T1 2014, p. 123.
  141. Casement 2003, p. 687.
  142. Valcárcel 1915, p. 206,215.
  143. Valcárcel 1915, p. 212.
  144. Valcárcel 1915, p. 213-214.
  145. Thomson 1913, p. 52.
  146. Colección de leyes, decretos, resoluciones i otros documentos oficiales referentes al departamento de Loreto
    https://books.google.com/books?id=i8dBAAAAYAAJ
  147. Valcárcel 1915, p. 201,206,213,261,275,278-279,285.
  148. Hardenburg 1912, pp. 200–201.
  149. Thomson 1913, pp. 86–87.
  150. Thomson 1913, p. 86.
  151. La vorágine de las Caucherías T1 2014, p. 118.
  152. Olarte Camacho 1911, p. 37.
  153. Valcárcel 1915, pp. 234–235.
  154. La vorágine de las Caucherías T1 2014, p. 115.
  155. La vorágine de las Caucherías T1 2014, p. 119.
  156. Valcárcel 1915, p. 234-235.
  157. Valcárcel 1915, p. 235.
  158. La vorágine de las Caucherías T1 2014, p. 115-116.
  159. Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 229,389. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSlavery_in_Peru1913 (help)
  160. Casement 1997, p. 94.
  161. Parliamentary Papers: Select Committee on the Putumayo
    https://books.google.com/books?id=tEkNAQAAIAAJ&q=cannot+escape&pg=PR34
  162. Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 265,346. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSlavery_in_Peru1913 (help)
  163. Hardenburg 1912, p. 268.
  164. Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 257. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSlavery_in_Peru1913 (help)
  165. The National Magazine: An Illustrated American Monthly
    https://books.google.com/books?id=0Y7NAAAAMAAJ&q=armando+normand&pg=PA942
  166. Casement 1997, p. 345.
  167. Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 373. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSlavery_in_Peru1913 (help)
  168. Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 230. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSlavery_in_Peru1913 (help)
  169. Hardenburg 1912, p. 276.
  170. Parliamentary Papers: Select Committee on the Putumayo
    https://books.google.com/books?id=tEkNAQAAIAAJ&q=cannot+escape&pg=PR34
  171. Pineda Camacho 1992, p. 109.
  172. Fuentes 1908, p. 114.
  173. Fuentes 1908, p. 113-114.
  174. Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 53. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSlavery_in_Peru1913 (help)
  175. Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 58. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSlavery_in_Peru1913 (help)
  176. Hardenburg 1912, p. 181.
  177. Hardenburg 1912, p. 182.
  178. Hardenburg 1912, pp. 29, 160, 181, 185.
  179. Casement 2003, pp. 165, 174, 434–435, 659.
  180. Casement 1997, pp. 250, 339.
  181. Hardenburg 1912, pp. 311–312.
  182. Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 279. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSlavery_in_Peru1913 (help)
  183. Hardenburg 1912, p. 312.
  184. Casement 1997, p. 250.
  185. Thomson 1913, p. 73.
  186. Hardenburg 1912, p. 201.
  187. El río: exploraciones y descubrimientos en la selva amazónica
  188. El Tiempo
    https://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/CMS-12288557
  189. Casement 2003, p. 701.
  190. Hardenburg 1912, p. 204.
  191. Casement 2003, p. 700.
  192. Hardenburg 1912, p. 255-256.
  193. Fuentes 1908, p. 122.
  194. Liberation through land 1998, p. 136.
  195. Tully 2011, p. 86.
  196. Fuentes 1908, p. 122,226.
  197. Casement 1997, p. 112.
  198. The Cambridge World History of Genocide
    https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108767118
  199. Tully 2011, p. 99.
  200. Casement 1997, p. 243.
  201. Department of State 1913, pp. 15, 60, 113, 228.
  202. Parliamentary Papers: Select Committee on the Putumayo
    https://books.google.com/books?id=tEkNAQAAIAAJ&q=cannot+escape&pg=PR34
  203. Casement 1997, pp. 13, 119.
  204. Department of State 1913, pp. 258, 261, 281.
  205. Goodman 2009, pp. 68, 105, 120.
  206. Casement 1997, p. 263.
  207. Hardenburg 1912, pp. 29, 183, 204.
  208. Casement 1997, pp. 208–209.
  209. Casement 1997, p. 199.
  210. Casement 1997, pp. 214–215.
  211. The North-West Amazons; Notes of Some Months Spent Among Cannibal Tribes
    https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/55540/pg55540-images.html#FNanchor_61
  212. Casement 1997, p. 119.
  213. Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man
    https://books.google.com/books?id=HpRfEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22loayza%22+%22putumayo%22&pg=PR7
  214. Hardenburg 1912, p. 303.
  215. Department of State 1913, p. 147.
  216. Casement 1997, p. 311.
  217. Casement 1997, p. 136.
  218. Casement 1997, p. 160.
  219. Casement 1997, p. 320.
  220. Casement 1997, p. 140.
  221. Casement 1997, pp. 135–136.
  222. Hardenburg 1912, pp. 209, 242–243, 297.
  223. Hardenburg 1912, pp. 243, 251.
  224. Casement 1997, p. 226.
  225. Hardenburg 1912, p. 243.
  226. Casement 1997, p. 13.
  227. Department of State 1913, p. 369.
  228. Valcárcel 1915, p. 8-9.
  229. Hardenburg 1912, p. 216.
  230. Hardenburg 1912, p. 252.
  231. Hardenburg 1912, pp. 243, 252.
  232. Casement 1997, p. 195.
  233. Casement 1997, p. 259.
  234. Paternoster 1913, p. 115-116.
  235. Department of State 1913, p. 348.
  236. Department of State 1913, p. 334.
  237. Goodman 2009, p. 36.
  238. Hardenburg 1912, p. 43.
  239. Walker 2022, p. 7.
  240. Walker 2022, p. 25.
  241. Hardenburg 1912, p. 33.
  242. Department of State 1913, p. 272,434,437.
  243. Casement 1997, p. 154.
  244. Walker 2022, p. 26.
  245. Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 291-292. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSlavery_in_Peru1913 (help)
  246. Casement 1997, p. 444.
  247. Casement 1997, pp. 444, 508.
  248. Goodman 2009, p. 235.
  249. En el Putumayo y sus afluentes 1907, p. 95.
  250. Collier 1968, p. 51.
  251. Casement 2003, p. 643.
  252. Casement 1997, p. 323.
  253. Hardenburg 1912, p. 215.
  254. Valcárcel 1915, pp. 89, 124.
  255. Thomson 1913, pp. 60, 99.
  256. Casement 1997, p. 173.
  257. Casement 1997, pp. 263, 269–270.
  258. Researchgate.net
    https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339235655
  259. Thomson 1913, p. 87.
  260. Thomson 1913, p. 60.
  261. Hardenburg 1912, pp. 259–260.
  262. Valcárcel 1915, pp. 92, 318, 448–449.
  263. Valcárcel 1915, pp. 92, 318.
  264. A catalogue of crime 1912, p. 106.
  265. Hardenburg 1912, p. 259.
  266. Valcárcel 1915, pp. 117, 285.
  267. Valcárcel 1915, p. 285.
  268. Précis of the Confidential Report 1911, p. 1.
  269. Valcárcel 1915, p. 124.
  270. Hardenburg 1912, p. 206.
  271. Hardenburg 1912, pp. 905–191.
  272. Thomson 1913, p. xxi, 1, 60.
  273. Hardenburg 1912, p. 277,286.
  274. Department of State 1913, p. 274, 306, 321-322, 346.
  275. Hardenburg 1912, p. 234, 239, 259, 308.
  276. Hardenburg 1912, pp. 180, 350.
  277. Hardenburg 1912, p. 310.
  278. Department of State 1913, p. 270.
  279. Casement 1997, p. 315-316.
  280. Hardenburg 1912, p. 234.
  281. Casement 1997, p. 230.
  282. Casement 1997, p. 247.
  283. Casement 1997, p. 246.
  284. Casement 1997, p. 321.
  285. Casement 1997, p. 332.
  286. Department of State 1913, p. 276,293.
  287. Department of State 1913, p. 276.
  288. Revistas
    https://www.revistas.usp.br/abei/article/view/179478/166100
  289. Department of State 1913, p. 285.
  290. Casement 1997, pp. 319–320.
  291. Précis of the Confidential Report 1911, p. 42.
  292. Casement 2003, p. 708.
  293. Department of State 1913, p. 166.
  294. Casement 1997, p. 146.
  295. Department of State 1913, p. 323,361,381,408-409.
  296. Casement 1997, p. 142.
  297. Department of State 1913, p. 287.
  298. Department of State 1913, pp. 265, 346.
  299. Department of State 1913, p. 112.
  300. Department of State 1913, p. 86.
  301. Department of State 1913, pp. 219, 265.
  302. Department of State 1913, p. 218.
  303. Casement 1997, p. 293.
  304. Valcárcel 1915, p. 165.
  305. Valcárcel 1915, p. 365,378.
  306. Hardenburg 1912, pp. 254–255.
  307. Casement 1997, p. 424.
  308. Casement 2003, p. 177.
  309. Casement 1997, p. 423.
  310. Department of State 1913, p. 368.
  311. Hardenburg 1912, pp. 243, 256.
  312. Casement 2003, p. 173.
  313. Department of State 1913, p. 375.
  314. Hardenburg 1912, p. 281.
  315. Department of State 1913, p. 341.
  316. Hardenburg 1912, p. 282.
  317. Précis of the Confidential Report 1911, p. 31.
  318. Valcárcel 1915, p. 332,366.
  319. Chirif 2009, p. 207.
  320. Valcárcel 1915, p. 168-169.
  321. SurvivalInternational.org
    https://www.survivalinternational.org/news/11549
  322. Department of State 1913, pp. 390–391.
  323. Casement 1997, p. 193.
  324. Casement 1997, p. 194.
  325. Casement 1997, p. 207.
  326. Department of State 1913, p. 52.
  327. Department of State 1913, p. 167.
  328. Casement 1997, p. 340.
  329. Précis of the Confidential Report 1911, p. 43.
  330. Valcárcel 1915, pp. 201–202.
  331. Casement 1997, p. 101.
  332. Department of State 1913, p. 302.
  333. Department of State 1913, pp. 302–303.
  334. Hardenburg 1912, pp. 181, 200, 232.
  335. Hardenburg 1912, p. 231.
  336. Department of State 1913, p. 115.
  337. Hardenburg 1912, p. 140.
  338. Hardenburg 1912, p. 148.
  339. Casement 1997, p. 356.
  340. A catalogue of crime 1912, p. 177-178.
  341. Thomson 1913, p. 88.
  342. Hardenburg 1912, p. 175.
  343. Olarte Camacho 1911, p. 49.
  344. Hardenburg 1912, p. 174-175.
  345. Valcárcel 1915, p. 302.
  346. A catalogue of crime 1912, p. 220.
  347. Olarte Camacho 1911, p. 86.
  348. A catalogue of crime 1912, p. 201,206.
  349. A catalogue of crime 1912, p. 202.
  350. Putumayo: la vorágine de las Caucherías T1 2014, p. 192. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPutumayo:_la_vorágine_de_las_Cauch
  351. Goodman 2009, p. 35.
  352. A catalogue of crime 1912.
  353. A catalogue of crime 1912, p. 223.
  354. Hardenburg 1912, p. 202.
  355. A catalogue of crime 1912, p. 203.
  356. Hardenburg 1912, p. 168.
  357. Olarte Camacho 1911, p. 117.
  358. A catalogue of crime 1912, p. 202-203.
  359. A catalogue of crime 1912, p. 217.
  360. Hardenburg 1912, p. 154,202.
  361. Casement 1997, p. 231.
  362. Casement 1997, p. 338.
  363. Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 294. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSlavery_in_Peru1913 (help)
  364. Parliamentary Papers: Select Committee on the Putumayo
    https://books.google.com/books?id=tEkNAQAAIAAJ&q=cannot+escape&pg=PR34
  365. Casement 2003, p. 110.
  366. Casement 1997, p. 455-456.
  367. A catalogue of crime 1912, p. 137.
  368. Casement 1997, p. 111.
  369. Hardenburg 1912, p. 333.
  370. Casement 1997, p. 111,456.
  371. Casement 1997, p. 110,455.
  372. Hardenburg 1912, pp. 190–191.
  373. Hardenburg 1912, p. 241.
  374. Valcárcel 1915, p. 33.
  375. Casement 2003, p. 699-700.
  376. Valcárcel 1915, p. 287.
  377. Department of State 1913, p. 145.
  378. Hardenburg 1912, p. 260.
  379. Hardenburg 1912, p. 238.
  380. Department of State 1913, pp. 382–383.
  381. Valcárcel 1915, p. 253-254.
  382. Department of State 1913, p. 383.
  383. Hardenburg 1912, pp. 222–223.
  384. Department of State 1913, pp. 350–351.
  385. Hardenburg 1912, p. 331.
  386. Hardenburg 1912, p. 254.
  387. Paternoster 1913, pp. 70–74.
  388. Casement 2003, pp. 652, 655.
  389. Casement 2003, pp. 652, 666.
  390. Department of State 1913, p. 96.
  391. Chirif 2017, p. 119.
  392. Parliamentary Papers: Select Committee on the Putumayo
    https://books.google.com/books?id=tEkNAQAAIAAJ&q=cannot+escape&pg=PR34
  393. Goodman 2009, p. 144.
  394. Casement 2003, p. 280.
  395. Casement 2003, pp. 234, 280.
  396. Department of State 1913, p. 415.
  397. Casement 2003, pp. 593, 605, 646.
  398. The Anti-slavery Reporter & 1909-1914, p. 267. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThe_Anti-slavery_Reporter1909-1914 (help)
  399. The Anti-slavery Reporter 1914, p. 114.
  400. The Anti-slavery Reporter & 1909-1914, p. 153-154. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThe_Anti-slavery_Reporter1909-1914 (help
  401. Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Republica 1917, p. 271.
  402. Casement 2003, p. 651.
  403. Zumaeta 1913, p. 9. sfn error: no target: CITEREFZumaeta1913 (help)
  404. Department of State 1913, p. 188.
  405. Chirif 2017, pp. 252–253, 272, 285.
  406. Chirif 2014, p. 128-129. sfn error: no target: CITEREFChirif2014 (help)
  407. researchgate.net
    https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375086523
  408. Chirif 2009, p. 189.
  409. Goodman 2010, p. 264-265. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGoodman2010 (help)
  410. researchgate.net
    https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375086523
  411. Estudios Sobre Violencia y Conflicto
    https://www.academia.edu/22848476
  412. Chirif 2017, p. 252-253.
  413. Chirif 2017, p. 273.
  414. researchgate.net
    https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375086523
  415. Chirif 2017, p. 252-254.
  416. researchgate.net
    https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375086523
  417. Un viaje por el Putumayo y el Amazonas ensayo de navegación
    https://books.google.com/books?id=2JEXAAAAIAAJ
  418. Estudios Sobre Violencia y Conflicto
    https://www.academia.edu/22848476
  419. Goodman 2010, p. 265. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGoodman2010 (help)
  420. Un viaje por el Putumayo y el Amazonas ensayo de navegación
    https://books.google.com/books?id=2JEXAAAAIAAJ
  421. Goodman 2010, p. 264-265,285. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGoodman2010 (help)
  422. Estudios Sobre Violencia y Conflicto
    https://www.academia.edu/22848476
  423. Estudios Sobre Violencia y Conflicto
    https://www.academia.edu/22848476
  424. Víctor San Román 1994, p. 192-193.
  425. A Grammar of Bora: With Special Attention to Tone
    https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/55005
  426. Víctor San Román 1994, p. 193.
  427. Javier Romero Dianderas 2015, pp. 55–56.
  428. A Grammar of Bora: With Special Attention to Tone
    https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/55005
  429. Víctor San Román 1994, p. 192.
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