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Periodic table

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Periodic table

The periodic table, also known as the periodic table of the elements, is an ordered arrangement of the chemical elements into rows ("periods") and columns ("groups"). An icon of chemistry, the periodic table is widely used in physics and other sciences. It is a depiction of the periodic law, which states that when the elements are arranged in order of their atomic numbers an approximate recurrence of their properties is evident. The table is divided into four roughly rectangular areas called blocks. Elements in the same group tend to show similar chemical characteristics. Vertical, horizontal and diagonal trends characterize the periodic table. Metallic character increases going down a group and from right to left across a period. Nonmetallic character increases going from the bottom left of the periodic table to the top right. The first periodic table to become generally accepted was that of the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869; he formulated the periodic law as a dependence of chemical properties on atomic mass. As not all elements were then known, there were gaps in his periodic table, and Mendeleev successfully used the periodic law to predict some properties of some of the missing elements. The periodic law was recognized as a fundamental discovery in the late 19th century. It was explained early in the 20th century, with the discovery of atomic numbers and associated pioneering work in quantum mechanics, both ideas serving to illuminate the internal structure of the atom. A recognisably modern form of the table was reached in 1945 with Glenn T. Seaborg's discovery that the actinides were in fact f-block rather than d-block elements. The periodic table and law have become a central and indispensable part of modern chemistry. The periodic table continues to evolve with the progress of science. In nature, only elements up to atomic number 94 exist; elements beyond that can only be synthesized in the laboratory. By 2010, the first 118 elements were known, thereby completing the first seven rows of the table; however, chemical characterization is still needed for the heaviest elements to confirm that their properties match their positions. New discoveries will extend the table beyond these seven rows, though it is not yet known how many more elements are possible; moreover, theoretical calculations suggest that this unknown region will not follow the patterns of the known part of the table. Some scientific discussion also continues regarding whether some elements are correctly positioned in the table. Many alternative representations of the periodic law exist, and there is some discussion as to whether there is an optimal form of the periodic table.

Tables

· Structure › Electron configurations
Orbital
Orbital
ℓ =
Orbital
0
s
1
p
2
d
3
f
4
g
5
h
6
i
n = 1
n = 1
ℓ =
n = 1
0
1s
2
2
n = 2
n = 2
ℓ =
n = 2
0
2s
1
2p
3
8
n = 3
n = 3
ℓ =
n = 3
0
3s
1
3p
2
3d
4
18
n = 4
n = 4
ℓ =
n = 4
0
4s
1
4p
2
4d
3
4f
5
32
n = 5
n = 5
ℓ =
n = 5
0
5s
1
5p
2
5d
3
5f
4
5g
6
50
n = 6
n = 6
ℓ =
n = 6
0
6s
1
6p
2
6d
3
6f
4
6g
5
6h
Shell capacity (2n2)
72
n = 7
n = 7
ℓ =
n = 7
0
7s
1
7p
2
7d
3
7f
4
7g
5
7h
6
7i
Shell capacity (2n2)
98
Subshell capacity (4ℓ+2)
Subshell capacity (4ℓ+2)
ℓ =
Subshell capacity (4ℓ+2)
0
2
1
6
2
10
3
14
4
18
5
22
6
26
ℓ =
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Shell capacity (2n2)
Orbital
s
p
d
f
g
h
i
n = 1
1s
2
n = 2
2s
2p
8
n = 3
3s
3p
3d
18
n = 4
4s
4p
4d
4f
32
n = 5
5s
5p
5d
5f
5g
50
n = 6
6s
6p
6d
6f
6g
6h
72
n = 7
7s
7p
7d
7f
7g
7h
7i
98
Subshell capacity (4ℓ+2)
2
6
10
14
18
22
26
· Structure › Electron configurations › Order of subshell filling
3 Li
3 Li
1 H
3 Li
Col 2
4 Be
Col 3
5 B
Col 4
6 C
Col 5
7 N
Col 6
8 O
Col 7
9 F
2 He
10 Ne
2×1 = 2 elements 1s 0p
2×(1+3) = 8 elements 2s 2p
11 Na
11 Na
1 H
11 Na
Col 2
12 Mg
Col 3
13 Al
Col 4
14 Si
Col 5
15 P
Col 6
16 S
Col 7
17 Cl
2 He
18 Ar
2×1 = 2 elements 1s 0p
2×(1+3) = 8 elements 3s 3p
1 H
2 He
2×1 = 2 elements 1s 0p
3 Li
4 Be
5 B
6 C
7 N
8 O
9 F
10 Ne
2×(1+3) = 8 elements 2s 2p
11 Na
12 Mg
13 Al
14 Si
15 P
16 S
17 Cl
18 Ar
2×(1+3) = 8 elements 3s 3p
· Structure › Electron configurations › Order of subshell filling
3 Li
3 Li
1 H
3 Li
Col 2
4 Be
11 Na
11 Na
1 H
11 Na
Col 2
12 Mg
19 K
19 K
1 H
19 K
Col 2
20 Ca
Col 3
21 Sc
Col 4
22 Ti
Col 5
23 V
Col 6
24 Cr
Col 7
25 Mn
Col 8
26 Fe
Col 9
27 Co
Col 10
28 Ni
Col 11
29 Cu
Col 12
30 Zn
37 Rb
37 Rb
1 H
37 Rb
Col 2
38 Sr
Col 3
39 Y
Col 4
40 Zr
Col 5
41 Nb
Col 6
42 Mo
Col 7
43 Tc
Col 8
44 Ru
Col 9
45 Rh
Col 10
46 Pd
Col 11
47 Ag
Col 12
48 Cd
1 H
3 Li
4 Be
11 Na
12 Mg
19 K
20 Ca
21 Sc
22 Ti
23 V
24 Cr
25 Mn
26 Fe
27 Co
28 Ni
29 Cu
30 Zn
37 Rb
38 Sr
39 Y
40 Zr
41 Nb
42 Mo
43 Tc
44 Ru
45 Rh
46 Pd
47 Ag
48 Cd
3 Li
3 Li
1 H
3 Li
Col 2
4 Be
11 Na
11 Na
1 H
11 Na
Col 2
12 Mg
19 K
19 K
1 H
19 K
Col 2
20 Ca
37 Rb
37 Rb
1 H
37 Rb
Col 2
38 Sr
55 Cs
55 Cs
1 H
55 Cs
Col 2
56 Ba
Col 3
57 La
Col 4
58 Ce
Col 5
59 Pr
Col 6
60 Nd
Col 7
61 Pm
Col 8
62 Sm
Col 9
63 Eu
Col 10
64 Gd
Col 11
65 Tb
Col 12
66 Dy
87 Fr
87 Fr
1 H
87 Fr
Col 2
88 Ra
Col 3
89 Ac
Col 4
90 Th
Col 5
91 Pa
Col 6
92 U
Col 7
93 Np
Col 8
94 Pu
Col 9
95 Am
Col 10
96 Cm
Col 11
97 Bk
Col 12
98 Cf
1 H
3 Li
4 Be
11 Na
12 Mg
19 K
20 Ca
37 Rb
38 Sr
55 Cs
56 Ba
57 La
58 Ce
59 Pr
60 Nd
61 Pm
62 Sm
63 Eu
64 Gd
65 Tb
66 Dy
87 Fr
88 Ra
89 Ac
90 Th
91 Pa
92 U
93 Np
94 Pu
95 Am
96 Cm
97 Bk
98 Cf
Number of valence electrons · Periodic trends › Valence and oxidation states
1
1
Col 1
1
1
H 1
Col 4
He 2
2
2
Col 1
2
1
Li 1
2
Be 2
Col 5
B 3
Col 6
C 4
Col 7
N 5
Col 8
O 6
Col 9
F 7
Col 10
Ne 8
3
3
Col 1
3
1
Na 1
2
Mg 2
Col 5
Al 3
Col 6
Si 4
Col 7
P 5
Col 8
S 6
Col 9
Cl 7
Col 10
Ar 8
4
4
Col 1
4
1
K 1
2
Ca 2
Col 5
Sc 3
Col 6
Ti 4
Col 7
V 5
Col 8
Cr 6
Col 9
Mn 7
Col 10
Fe 8
Col 11
Co 9
Col 12
Ni 10
5
5
Col 1
5
1
Rb 1
2
Sr 2
Col 5
Y 3
Col 6
Zr 4
Col 7
Nb 5
Col 8
Mo 6
Col 9
Tc 7
Col 10
Ru 8
Col 11
Rh 9
Col 12
Pd 10
6
6
Col 1
6
1
Cs 1
2
Ba 2
Col 4
La 3
Col 5
Ce 4
Col 6
Pr 5
Col 7
Nd 6
Col 8
Pm 7
Col 9
Sm 8
Col 10
Eu 9
Col 11
Gd 10
Col 12
Tb 11
7
7
Col 1
7
1
Fr 1
2
Ra 2
Col 4
Ac 3
Col 5
Th 4
Col 6
Pa 5
Col 7
U 6
Col 8
Np 7
Col 9
Pu 8
Col 10
Am 9
Col 11
Cm 10
Col 12
Bk 11
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
H 1
He 2
2
Li 1
Be 2
B 3
C 4
N 5
O 6
F 7
Ne 8
3
Na 1
Mg 2
Al 3
Si 4
P 5
S 6
Cl 7
Ar 8
4
K 1
Ca 2
Sc 3
Ti 4
V 5
Cr 6
Mn 7
Fe 8
Co 9
Ni 10
5
Rb 1
Sr 2
Y 3
Zr 4
Nb 5
Mo 6
Tc 7
Ru 8
Rh 9
Pd 10
6
Cs 1
Ba 2
La 3
Ce 4
Pr 5
Nd 6
Pm 7
Sm 8
Eu 9
Gd 10
Tb 11
7
Fr 1
Ra 2
Ac 3
Th 4
Pa 5
U 6
Np 7
Pu 8
Am 9
Cm 10
Bk 11

References

  1. The question of how many natural elements there are is quite complicated and is not fully resolved. The heaviest element
  2. Some isotopes currently considered stable are theoretically expected to be radioactive with extremely long half-lives: f
  3. The half-life of plutonium's most stable isotope is just long enough that it should also be a primordial element. A 1971
  4. Tiny traces of plutonium are also continually brought to Earth via cosmic rays.
  5. See for example the periodic table poster sold by Sigma-Aldrich.
    https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/SG/en/product/aldrich/z543209
  6. Strictly speaking, one cannot draw an orbital such that the electron is guaranteed to be inside it, but it can be drawn
  7. Authors differ on whether the n + ℓ rule has yet been derived from quantum mechanics. Scerri claims that it has not, des
  8. Once two to four electrons are removed, the d and f orbitals usually become lower in energy than the s ones: 1s ≪ 2s < 2
  9. In fact, electron configurations represent a first-order approximation: an atom really exists in a superposition of mult
  10. Compounds that would use the 6d orbitals of nihonium as valence orbitals have been theoretically investigated, but they
  11. Properties of the p-block elements nevertheless do affect the succeeding s-block elements. The 3s shell in sodium is abo
  12. There are many lower oxides as well: for example, phosphorus in group 15 forms two oxides, P2O3 and P2O5.
  13. The normally "forbidden" intermediate oxidation states may be stabilized by forming dimers, as in [Cl3Ga–GaCl3]2− (galli
  14. The boundary between dispersion forces and metallic bonding is gradual, like that between ionic and covalent bonding. Ch
  15. All this describes the situation at standard pressure. Under sufficiently high pressure, the band gaps of any solid drop
  16. Descriptions of the structures formed by the elements can be found throughout Greenwood and Earnshaw. There are two bord
  17. See melting points of the elements (data page). The same is probably true of francium, but due to its extreme instabilit
  18. See lists of metalloids. For example, a periodic table used by the American Chemical Society includes polonium as a meta
  19. Demkov and Ostrovsky consider the potential U 1 / 2 ( r ) = − 2 v r R ( r +
  20. For example, the early actinides continue to behave more like the d-block transition metals in their propensity towards
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