Topzle Topzle

Paul the Apostle

Updated: Wikipedia source

Paul the Apostle

Paul, also named Saul of Tarsus, commonly known as Paul the Apostle or Saint Paul, was a Christian apostle (c. 5 – c. 64/65 AD) who spread the teachings of Jesus in the first-century AD. For his contributions towards the New Testament, he is generally regarded as one of the most important figures of the Apostolic Age, and he also founded several Christian communities in Asia Minor and Europe from the mid-40s to the mid-50s AD. The main sources of information on Paul's life and works are Paul's letters and the Acts of the Apostles in the New Testament. Approximately half of its content documents his travels, preaching, and miracles. Paul was not one of the Twelve Apostles, and he did not know Jesus during his lifetime. Nonetheless, Paul was a contemporary of Jesus and personally knew eyewitnesses of Jesus such as his closest disciples (Peter and John) and brother James since the mid 30s AD, within a few years of the crucifixion (ca. 30–33 AD). He had knowledge of the life of Jesus and his teachings. According to the Acts, Paul lived as a Pharisee and participated in the persecution of early disciples of Jesus before his conversion. On his way to arrest Christians in Damascus, Paul saw a bright light, heard Christ speak, was blinded, and later healed by Ananias. After these events, Paul was baptized, beginning immediately to proclaim that Jesus of Nazareth was the Jewish messiah and the Son of God. He made three missionary journeys to spread the Christian message to non-Jewish communities. Fourteen of the 27 books in the New Testament have traditionally been attributed to Paul. Seven of the Pauline epistles are undisputed by scholars as being authentic. Of the other six, Ephesians, 1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus are generally considered pseudepigraphical, while Colossians and 2 Thessalonians are debated. Pauline authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews is almost universally rejected by scholars. The other six are believed by some scholars to have come from followers writing in his name, using material from Paul's surviving letters and letters written by him that no longer survive. Today, Paul's epistles continue to be vital roots of the theology, worship, and pastoral life in the Latin and Protestant traditions of the West, as well as the Eastern Catholic and Orthodox traditions of the East. Paul's influence on Christian thought and practice is pervasive in scope and profound in impact. Christians, notably in the Lutheran tradition, have read Paul as advocating a law-free Gospel against Judaism. He has been accused of corrupting or hijacking Christianity, often by introducing pagan or Hellenistic themes to the early church. There has recently been increasing acceptance of Paul as a fundamentally Jewish figure in line with the original disciples in Jerusalem over past interpretations, manifested through movements like "Paul Within Judaism".

Infobox

Born
Saul of Tarsusc. 5 ADTarsus, Cilicia, Roman Empire
Died
c. 64/65 ADRome, Italia, Roman Empire
Venerated in
All Christian denominations that venerate saints
Canonized
Pre-Congregation
Major shrine
Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, Rome, Italy
Feast
mw- 25 January – Feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul 30 June – solo feast day, still celebrated by some religious orders 29 June – Feast of Saints Peter and Paul (with Peter the Apostle) 10 February – Feast of Saint Paul's Shipwreck in Malta 18 November – Feast of the dedication of the basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul Saturday before the sixth Sunday after Pentecost – Feast of the Twelve Apostles and Paul the thirteenth Apostle (Armenian Apostolic Church)
Attributes
Christian martyrdom, sword, book
Patronage
Missionaries, theologians, evangelists, and Gentile Christians, Malta
Education
School of Gamaliel
Occupation(s)
Tentmaker, Christian missionary and preacher
Notable work
Certain:Epistle to the RomansEpistle to the GalatiansFirst Epistle to the CorinthiansSecond Epistle to the CorinthiansFirst Epistle to the ThessaloniansEpistle to PhilemonEpistle to the PhilippiansDisputed:Second Epistle to the ThessaloniansEpistle to the ColossiansEpistle to the EphesiansFirst Epistle to TimothySecond Epistle to TimothyEpistle to Titus
Era
Apostolic Age
Language
Koine Greek
Tradition or movement
Pauline Christianity
Main interests
Torah, Christology, eschatology, soteriology, ecclesiology
Notable ideas
Pauline privilege, Law of Christ, Holy Spirit, Unknown God, divinity of Jesus, thorn in the flesh, Pauline mysticism, biblical inspiration, supersessionism, non-circumcision, salvation
Occupations
Tentmaker, Christian missionary and preacher

Tables

· Life and career › Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles
First visit to Jerusalem "after many days" of Damascus conversion preaches openly in Jerusalem with Barnabas meets apostles
First visit to Jerusalem "after many days" of Damascus conversion preaches openly in Jerusalem with Barnabas meets apostles
Acts
First visit to Jerusalem "after many days" of Damascus conversion preaches openly in Jerusalem with Barnabas meets apostles
Epistles
First visit to Jerusalem three years after Damascus conversion sees only Cephas (Simon Peter) and James
Second visit to Jerusalem for famine relief
Second visit to Jerusalem for famine relief
Acts
Second visit to Jerusalem for famine relief
Epistles
There is debate over whether Paul's visit in Galatians 2 refers to the visit for famine relief or the Jerusalem Council. If it refers to the former, then this was the trip made "after an interval of fourteen years".
Third visit to Jerusalem with Barnabas "Council of Jerusalem" followed by confrontation with Barnabas in Antioch
Third visit to Jerusalem with Barnabas "Council of Jerusalem" followed by confrontation with Barnabas in Antioch
Acts
Third visit to Jerusalem with Barnabas "Council of Jerusalem" followed by confrontation with Barnabas in Antioch
Epistles
Another visit to Jerusalem 14 years later (after Damascus conversion?) with Barnabas and Titus possibly the "Council of Jerusalem" Paul agrees to "remember the poor" followed by confrontation with Peter and Barnabas in Antioch
Fourth visit to Jerusalem to "greet the church"
Fourth visit to Jerusalem to "greet the church"
Acts
Fourth visit to Jerusalem to "greet the church"
Epistles
Apparently unmentioned.
Fifth visit to Jerusalem after an absence of several years to bring gifts for the poor and to present offerings Paul arrested
Fifth visit to Jerusalem after an absence of several years to bring gifts for the poor and to present offerings Paul arrested
Acts
Fifth visit to Jerusalem after an absence of several years to bring gifts for the poor and to present offerings Paul arrested
Epistles
Another visit to Jerusalem. to deliver the collection for the poor
Acts
Epistles
First visit to Jerusalem "after many days" of Damascus conversion preaches openly in Jerusalem with Barnabas meets apostles
First visit to Jerusalem three years after Damascus conversion sees only Cephas (Simon Peter) and James
Second visit to Jerusalem for famine relief
There is debate over whether Paul's visit in Galatians 2 refers to the visit for famine relief or the Jerusalem Council. If it refers to the former, then this was the trip made "after an interval of fourteen years".
Third visit to Jerusalem with Barnabas "Council of Jerusalem" followed by confrontation with Barnabas in Antioch
Another visit to Jerusalem 14 years later (after Damascus conversion?) with Barnabas and Titus possibly the "Council of Jerusalem" Paul agrees to "remember the poor" followed by confrontation with Peter and Barnabas in Antioch
Fourth visit to Jerusalem to "greet the church"
Apparently unmentioned.
Fifth visit to Jerusalem after an absence of several years to bring gifts for the poor and to present offerings Paul arrested
Another visit to Jerusalem. to deliver the collection for the poor

References

  1. Latin: Paulus; Koine Greek: Παῦλος, romanized: Paûlos; Coptic: ⲡⲁⲩⲗⲟⲥ; Hebrew: פאולוס השליח
  2. Biblical Greek: Σαῦλος, romanized: Saûlos; Aramaic: שאול ܫܐܘܠ, romanized: Šāʾūl
  3. Some examples of Paul's knowledge of the life and teachings of Jesus : born of a woman (Gal 4:4), from David's lineage (
  4. Acts 8:1 "at Jerusalem"; Acts 9:13 "at Jerusalem"; Acts 9:21 "in Jerusalem"; Acts 26:10 "in Jerusalem". In Galatians 1:1
  5. Paul's undisputed epistles are 1 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans, Philippians, and Philemon. The s
  6. 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus may be "Trito-Pauline", meaning they may have been written by members of the Pauline sch
  7. The only indication as to who is leading is in the order of names. At first, the two are referred to as Barnabas and Pau
  8. This clause is not found in some major sources: Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Alexandrinus, Codex Vaticanus or Codex Laudianus
  9. Paul does not exactly say that this was his second visit. In Galatians, he lists three important meetings with Peter, an
  10. Note that Paul only writes that he is on his way to Jerusalem, or just planning the visit. There might or might not have
  11. Sanders 2019: "Paul [...] only occasionally had the opportunity to revisit his churches. He tried to keep up his convert
  12. Dunn 1982, p. n.49 quotes Stendahl 1976, p. 2 "... a doctrine of faith was hammered out by Paul for the very specific an
  13. According to the Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), "The Mishnah says that sins are expiated (1) by sacrifice, (2) by repentanc
  14. 115 years and 6 months from the Crucifixion, according to Tertullian's reckoning in Adversus Marcionem, xv
  15. Trebilco 2023, pp. 368–369.
  16. In the Footsteps of Paul
    https://www.pbs.org/empires/peterandpaul/footsteps/footsteps_1_1.html
  17. Brown 1997, p. 436.
  18. Harris 2003, p. 42: He was probably martyred in Rome about 64–65 AD
  19. Harris 2003.
  20. Domar: the calendrical and liturgical cycle of the Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church, Armenian Orthodox Theological Res
  21. Acts 18:3
    https://www.esv.org/Acts+18:3
  22. Acts 22:3
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2022:3&version=nrsv
  23. Brown 1997, p. 442.
  24. Sanders 2019.
  25. www.britannica.com
    https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle
  26. Dunn 2001, p. 577, Ch 32.
  27. Did Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth
  28. Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus
    https://doi.org/10.1163%2F17455197-01602009
  29. Acts 9:3–22
    https://www.esv.org/Acts+9:3
  30. Brown 1997, p. 407.
  31. Brown, Fitzmyer & Murphy 1990, p. 920, col.2, Ch 60:2.
  32. United Methodist Church
    https://web.archive.org/web/20000823232149/http://gbgm-umc.org/umw/corinthians/paul.stm
  33. Aageson 2008, p. 1.
  34. Powell 2009.
  35. Waardenburg 1999, p. 276.
  36. A Jewish Paul
  37. Paul: The Pagans' Apostle
  38. Hurtado 2005, p. 160.
  39. Dunn 2003, p. 21.
  40. Paul: His Letters and His Theology : an Introduction to Paul's Epistles
    https://books.google.com/books?id=RPu1qx50HmgC&pg=PA5
  41. Acts 22:25–29
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2022:25–29&version=nrsv
  42. Greek lexicon G4569 Σαύλος (Saul)Greek lexicon G3972 Παύλος (Paul)Hebrew lexicon H7586 שׁאוּל (Shaul/Saul)
    http://studybible.info/strongs/G4569
  43. Acts 16:37, Acts 22:25–29
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2016:37&version=nrsv
  44. Prat 1911.
  45. Lewis & Short 1879, Paulus: "a Roman surname (not a praenomen;)".
  46. Cole 1989.
  47. Acts 9:4; 22:7; 26:14
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%209:4&version=nrsv
  48. Acts 26:14
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2026:14&version=nrsv
  49. Acts 9:11
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%209:11&version=nrsv
  50. Acts 9:17; 22:13
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%209:17&version=nrsv
  51. Acts 13:9
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2013:9&version=nrsv
  52. 1 Corinthians 9:19–23
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/1_Corinthians#9:19
  53. Catholic Answers
    https://web.archive.org/web/20121030000303/http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/why-did-god-change-sauls-name-to-paul
  54. Tyndale Bulletin
    https://www.tyndalebulletin.org/article/30574
  55. Harvard Theological Review
    https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017816000018654
  56. Wordplay on Proper Names in Luke-Acts
  57. Dunn 2003, pp. 19–20.
  58. Cross & Livingstone 2005, St Paul.
  59. Open Yale Courses
    http://oyc.yale.edu/religious-studies/rlst-152/lecture-5
  60. Ehrman 2000, pp. 262–65.
  61. The Cambridge Companion to the New Testament
  62. Ladeuze 1909.
  63. White 2007, pp. 145–47.
  64. Koester 2000, p. 107.
  65. Acts 16:37,Acts 22:25–29
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2016:37&version=nrsv
  66. John B. Polhill, 532; cf. Richard R. Losch, The Uttermost Part of the Earth: A Guide to Places in the Bible (Grand Rapid
  67. Wright 1974, p. 404.
  68. britannica.com
    https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle#:~:text=Paul%20was%20a%20Greek-speaking,in%20his%20life%20and%20letters.
  69. Philippians 3:5
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Philippians%203:5&version=nrsv
  70. Dunn 2003, pp. 21–22.
  71. Acts 23:6
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2023:6&version=nrsv
  72. Dunn 2003, p. 22.
  73. Acts 23:16
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2023:16&version=nrsv
  74. 2 Timothy 1:3
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Timothy%201:3&version=nrsv
  75. Philippians 3:5–6
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Philippians%203:5–6&version=nrsv
  76. Acts 18:1–3
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2018:1–3&version=nrsv
  77. Dunn 2003, pp. 41–42.
  78. Acts 18:3
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2018:3&version=nrsv
  79. Romans 16:4
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%2016:4&version=nrsv
  80. Acts 22:3
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2022:3&version=nrsv
  81. Acts 7:58–60; 22:20
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%207:58–60:22&version=nrsv
  82. Dunn 2009, pp. 242–44.
  83. Bruce 2000, p. 43.
  84. Lee 2006, pp. 13–26.
  85. Kee 1983, p. 208.
  86. Galatians 1:13–14, Philippians 3:6, Acts 8:1–3
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%201:13–14&version=nrsv
  87. Dunn 2009, pp. 246–47, 277.
  88. Dunn 2009, pp. 246–47.
  89. Dunn 2009, p. 277.
  90. Bromiley 1979, p. 689.
  91. Barnett 2002, p. 21.
  92. Niswonger 1992, p. 200.
  93. Galatians 1:16
    https://www.esv.org/Galatians+1:16
  94. 1 Corinthians 15:8
    https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+Corinthians+15:8&version=nasb
  95. Acts 9:4–5
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%209:4–5&version=nrsv
  96. Acts 9:1–22
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%209:1–22&version=nrsv
  97. Acts 9:17
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%209:17&version=nrsv
  98. Acts 9:18
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%209:18&version=nrsv
  99. Aslan 2013, p. 184.
  100. McRay 2007, p. 66.
  101. Eskola 2001.
  102. Churchill 2010, pp. 4, 16–17, 22–23.
  103. Churchill 2010, pp. 250ff..
  104. Acts 9:20–22
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%209:20–22&version=nrsv
  105. Hengel 1997, p. 43.
  106. 2 Corinthians 11:32
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Corinthians%2011:32&version=nrsv
  107. Galatians 1:17
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%201:17&version=nrsv
  108. Lake 1911, pp. 320–23.
  109. Wright 1996, pp. 683–92.
  110. Hengel 2002, pp. 47–66.
  111. Galatians 1:13–24
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%201:13–24&version=nrsv
  112. The New Cambridge Companion to St. Paul
  113. Galatians 4:24–25
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%204:24–25&version=nrsv
  114. Galatians 1:11–16
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%201:11–16&version=nrsv
  115. Harris 2003, p. 517.
  116. Galatians 1:22–24
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%201:22–24&version=nrsv
  117. Galatians 2:1–10
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%202:1–10&version=nrsv
  118. Barnett 2005, p. 200.
  119. Dunn 2009, p. 369.
  120. Acts 11:26
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2011:26&version=nrsv
  121. Dunn 2009, p. 297.
  122. Dunn 2009.
  123. Ogg 1962.
  124. Barnett 2005, p. 83.
  125. Acts 11:26
  126. Tyndale Bulletin
    https://doi.org/10.53751%2F001c.141398
  127. Acts 13–14
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2013–14&version=nrsv
  128. Dunn 2009, p. 370.
  129. Acts 13:8–12
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2013:8–12&version=nrsv
  130. JewishEncyclopedia.com
    http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11952-paul-of-tarsus
  131. Acts 13:13–48
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2013:13–48&version=nrsv
  132. Acts 14:28
    https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+14:28&version=nkjv
  133. Spence-Jones 2015, p. 16.
  134. Brown 1997, p. 445.
  135. Brown 1997, pp. 428–29.
  136. Brown 1997, pp. 428–29, 445.
  137. Acts 15:2
    https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:Acts%2015:2
  138. Galatians 2:1–10
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%202:1–10&version=nrsv
  139. Bechtel 1910.
  140. Acts 15:2,Galatians 2:1
    https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:Acts%2015:2
  141. Galatians 2:9
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%202:9&version=nrsv
  142. Margaret M. Mitchell, Gentile Christianity (2006), p. 103
  143. White 2007, pp. 148–49.
  144. Acts 11:27–30
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2011:27–30&version=nrsv
  145. Galatians 1:18–20
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%201:18–20&version=nrsv
  146. Bruce 2000, p. 151.
  147. Galatians 2:11–14
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%202:11–14&version=nrsv
  148. White 2007, p. 170.
  149. McGrath 2006.
  150. Mills 2003, pp. 1109–10.
  151. Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, p. 400.
  152. Acts 16:6–10
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2016:6–10&version=nrsv
  153. Acts 16:5
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Acts#16:5
  154. Acts 16:16–24
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2016:16–24&version=nrsv
  155. Acts 16:25–40
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2016:25–40&version=nrsv
  156. Acts 18:2
    https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+18:2&version=nkjv
  157. Acts 18:18–21
    https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+18:18–21&version=nkjv
  158. Acts 18:18
    https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+18:18&version=nkjv
  159. Driscoll 1911.
  160. Acts 18:19–21
    https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+18:19–21&version=nkjv
  161. Acts 18:22–23
    https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+18:22–23&version=nkjv
  162. Acts 18:21
    https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+18:21&version=nkjv
  163. biblehub.com
    http://biblehub.com/commentaries/pulpit/acts/18.htm
  164. Acts 21:29
    https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+21:29&version=nkjv
  165. Crease 2019, pp. 309–10.
  166. Acts 20:34
    https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+20:34&version=nkjv
  167. McRay 2007, p. 185.
  168. Michael Flexsenhar 111, 'The Provenance of Philippians and Why it Matters: Old Questions, New Approaches,' Journal for t
    https://www.academia.edu/40090544/The_Provenance_of_Philippians_and_Why_it_Matters_Old_Questions_New_Approaches_Journal_for_the_Study_of_the_New_Testament_42_1_2019_18_45
  169. Acts 20:1–2
    https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+20:1–2&version=nkjv
  170. Sanday n.d., p. 202.
  171. Romans 15:19
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%2015:19&version=nrsv
  172. Burton 2000, p. 26.
  173. Petit 1909.
  174. Acts 21:8–10, Acts 21:15
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2021:8–10&version=nrsv
  175. 1st Clement – Lightfoot translation Early Christian Writings 1 Clem 5:5: "By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his e
    http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-lightfoot.html
  176. See also the endnote (3) by Arthur Cleveland Coxe on the last page of wikisource 1st Clement regarding Paul's preaching
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ante-Nicene_Fathers/Volume_I/CLEMENT_OF_ROME/First_Epistle_to_the_Corinthians/Chapter_LIX.
  177. Chrysostom's Homilies on 2 Timothy, verse 4:20
    https://biblehub.com/commentaries/chrysostom/2_timothy/4.htm
  178. Cyril on Paul and gifts of the Holy Ghost (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II Volume VII, Lecture 17, para. 26)
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers:_Series_II/Volume_VII/S._Cyril/Lecture_17
  179. The Muratorian Fragment lines 38–39 Bible Research
    http://www.bible-researcher.com/muratorian.html
  180. Acts 9:26–27
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%209:26–27&version=nrsv
  181. Galatians 1:17–18
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%201:17–18&version=nrsv
  182. Acts 11:29–30, Acts 12:25
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2011:29–30&version=nrsv
  183. Acts 11:30, 12:25
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2011:30&version=nrsv
  184. Acts 15
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2015&version=nrsv
  185. Galatians 2:1
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%202:1&version=nrsv
  186. Acts 15:1–19
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2015:1–19&version=nrsv
  187. Acts 15:36–40
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2015:36–40&version=nrsv
  188. Acts 18:21–22
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2018:21–22&version=nrsv
  189. Acts 21:17ff
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2021:17&version=nrsv
  190. Acts 24:17
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2024:17&version=nrsv
  191. Romans 15:25, 2 Corinthians 8–9, 1 Corinthians 16:1–3
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%2015:25&version=nrsv
  192. Acts 21:21
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2021:21&version=nrsv
  193. Acts 21:22–26
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2021:22–26&version=nrsv
  194. Acts 21:27–36
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2021:27–36&version=nrsv
  195. Acts 22:22
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2022:22&version=nrsv
  196. Acts 22:30
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2022:30&version=nrsv
  197. Acts 23:10
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2023:10&version=nrsv
  198. Acts 23:12
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2023:12&version=nrsv
  199. Acts 23:23
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2023:23&version=nrsv
  200. Acts 24:1
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2024:1&version=nrsv
  201. Acts 24:22
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2024:22&version=nrsv
  202. Sasson, Avi; Marom, Roy; Kharanbeh, Saleh (2025). "Bayyarat al-Khuri: An Ecclesiastical Agricultural Estate in Caesarea,
    https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8nf7668m
  203. Acts 24:23
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2024:23&version=nrsv
  204. Capes, Reeves & Richards 2011, p. 203.
  205. Acts 27:39–44
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2027:39–44&version=nrsv
  206. Acts 28:2–5
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2028:2–5&version=nrsv
  207. Acts 28:1–10
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2028:1–10&version=nrsv
  208. Acts 28:11–14
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2028:11–14&version=nrsv
  209. Polhill 1999, pp. 80, 164–5, 329.
  210. Acts 28:30–31
    https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+28:30–31&version=nkjv
  211. Irenaeus Against Heresies 3.3.2: the "...Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter a
    http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html
  212. Foxe, J., The Acts and Monuments of the Church: Containing the History and Sufferings of The Martyrs, p16
  213. MaGee Greg. "The Origins of the Church at Rome" Bible.org; Accessed 18 March 2013
    http://bible.org/article/origins-church-rome
  214. Pope Clement I, First Epistle to the Corinthians, 5:7
  215. Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Ephesians, 12:55. "You are initiated into the mysteries of the Gospel with Paul, the
    https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0104.htm
  216. De praescriptione haereticorum.
    https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/De_praescriptione_haereticorum
  217. Eusebius, Church History, Book 2, Chapter 22, Paragraph 3
  218. Eusebius, Church History, Book 2, Chapter 25, Paragraph 8
  219. Chronicle / Sacred History, Book II
    https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/35052.htm
  220. Concerning Lowliness of Mind.
    https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1907.htm
  221. ccel.org
    http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf07.iii.v.ii.html
  222. De mortibus persecutorum
    https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/De_mortibus_persecutorum#2
  223. De Viris Illustribus
    https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2708.htm
  224. De viris illustribus.
    http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/books/hieronym/viris_l.htm
  225. Tajra 2010, p. 188.
  226. General Audience of 4 February 2009: St Paul's martyrdom and heritage
    https://w2.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/audiences/2009/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20090204.html
  227. De Leonardis & Masi 1999, p. 21.
  228. James 1924.
  229. spazioinwind.libero.it
    https://spazioinwind.libero.it/lucina/lucina.htm
  230. Church History
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers:_Series_II/Volume_I/Church_History_of_Eusebius/Book_II/Chapter_25
  231. New Advent
    http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2708.htm
  232. BBC News
    http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6219656.stm
  233. Exaudi
    https://www.exaudi.org/on-pauls-tomb-at-the-origins-of-roman-christianity/
  234. National Geographic
    https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/news-st-paul-tomb-found-rome
  235. The Independent
    https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/bones-confirmed-as-st-paul-s-remains-1723751.html
  236. The New York Times
    https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/29/science/29vatican.html
  237. The Daily Telegraph
    https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/vaticancityandholysee/5685157/Bone-fragments-confirmed-to-be-Saint-Paul.html
  238. UPI
    https://www.upi.com/Top_News/2009/07/04/Vatican-Relics-analysis-is-inconclusive/UPI-25501246685972/
  239. The Daily Telegraph
    https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/vaticancityandholysee/5675461/Oldest-image-of-St-Paul-discovered.html
  240. NBC News
    https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna37845439
  241. Brown & Meier 1983, p. 124.
  242. Butler 1866, 30 June: St. Paul, the Apostle.
  243. 2 Timothy 4:13
    https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:2%20Timothy%204:13
  244. Journal of the British Archaeological Association
    https://books.google.com/books?id=UDAGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA272
  245. "Chambers' The Book of Days"
    http://www.thebookofdays.com/months/jan/25.htm
  246. Martyrologium Romanum (2nd ed.). Vatican City. 2004. p. 115
  247. Martyrologium Romanum
  248. Mystagogy Research Center
    https://www.johnsanidopoulos.com/2015/03/synaxis-of-all-saints-of-dodecanese.html
  249. www.oca.org
    https://www.oca.org/saints/all-lives/2021/06/29/101840-the-holy-glorious-and-all-praised-leaders-of-the-apostles-peter
  250. www.oca.org
    https://www.oca.org/saints/all-lives/2014/06/30/101711-synaxis-of-the-holy-glorious-and-all-praised-twelve-apostles
  251. Orthodox Christianity Then and Now
    https://www.johnsanidopoulos.com/2010/10/synaxis-of-all-saints-of-athens.html
  252. Ορθόδοξος Συναξαριστής
    https://web.archive.org/web/20230326145607/https://www.saint.gr/3731/saint.aspx
  253. Ορθόδοξος Συναξαριστής
    https://web.archive.org/web/20230730101450/https://www.saint.gr/4026/saint.aspx
  254. Orthodox Christianity Then and Now
    https://www.johnsanidopoulos.com/2017/05/synaxis-of-all-saintsof-gortyna-and.html
  255. "Αγιολόγιο – Ιερά Μητρόπολις Γορτύνης και Αρκαδίας"
    https://www.imga.gr/agiologio/
  256. Ορθόδοξος Συναξαριστής
    https://web.archive.org/web/20230602174657/https://www.saint.gr/4152/saint.aspx
  257. The Church of England
    https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar
  258. www.lcms.org
    https://www.lcms.org/worship/church-year/feasts-and-festivals
  259. www.gov.mt
    https://www.gov.mt/en/About%20Malta/Pages/Public%20Holidays.aspx
  260. Barnstone 1984, p. 447.
  261. Malherbe 1986, p. 170.
  262. Budge 1901, p. 531, The History of the Contending of Saint Paul.
  263. Budge 1901, p. 501, The Acts of Saint Peter.
  264. Barnes 1844, p. 212.
  265. Aune 2010, p. 9.
  266. Dunn & Rogerson 2003, p. 1274.
  267. Perkins 1988, pp. 4–7.
  268. 1 Corinthians 11:17–34
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%2011:17–34&version=nrsv
  269. Powell 2009, p. 234.
  270. Wiley 2002, p. 21.
  271. Donaldson 2010, p. 53.
  272. Donaldson 2010, p. 39.
  273. Bitner 2015, p. 268.
  274. Andria 2012, p. 271.
  275. Dunn 2010, pp. 170–71.
  276. MacDonald & Harrington 2000, p. 58.
  277. Williams 1957, pp. 22, 240.
  278. Mount 2022, p. 32.
  279. Shillington 2007, p. 18.
  280. Marshall 1980, p. 42.
  281. Romans 1
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%201&version=nrsv
  282. Galatians 1:16
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%201:16&version=nrsv
  283. 1 Corinthians 9:1
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%209:1&version=nrsv
  284. Galatians 1:12–15, 1 Corinthians 15:10
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%201:12–15&version=nrsv
  285. 2 Corinthians 12:7
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Corinthians%2012:7&version=nrsv
  286. The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version With The Apocrypha
  287. Horrell 2006, p. 30.
  288. Philippians 3:6
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Philippians%203:6&version=nrsv
  289. 1 Thessalonians 2:14–16
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Thessalonians%202:14–16&version=nrsv
  290. Powell 2009, p. 236.
  291. Acts 9:1–2
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%209:1–2&version=nrsv
  292. 1 Timothy 1:13
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Timothy%201:13&version=nrsv
  293. Clothed With Christ: The Example and Teaching of Jesus in Romans 12.1–15.13
  294. New Testament Studies
    https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0028688500007232
  295. Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament
  296. Romans 9–16
  297. The Epistle to the Romans
  298. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans
  299. Romans: A Commentary
  300. Tyndale Bulletin
    https://doi.org/10.53751%2F001c.30372
  301. Jesus and the Gospels, Third Edition: An Introduction and Survey
  302. The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition
  303. Romans 1:3
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%201:3&version=nrsv
  304. 1 Thessalonians 4:14–18
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Thessalonians%204:14–18&version=nrsv
  305. 1 Thessalonians 5:23
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Thessalonians%205:23&version=nrsv
  306. 1 Corinthians 1:2
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%201:2&version=nrsv
  307. 2 Corinthians 12:8–9
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Corinthians%2012:8–9&version=nrsv
  308. 1 Thessalonians 3:11
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Thessalonians%203:11&version=nrsv
  309. 1 Corinthians 16:22
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%2016:22&version=nrsv
  310. Romans 10:9–13
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%2010:9–13&version=nrsv
  311. Philippians 2:10–11
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Philippians%202:10–11&version=nrsv
  312. 1 Corinthians 6:11
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%206:11&version=nrsv
  313. Romans 6:3
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%206:3&version=nrsv
  314. 1 Corinthians 11:17–34
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%2011:17–34&version=nrsv
  315. 1 Thessalonians 4:15–17
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Thessalonians%204:15–17&version=nrsv
  316. Hurtado 2005, pp. 134–52.
  317. Cross & Livingstone 2005, Atonement.
  318. Ephesians 2:8–9
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Ephesians#2:8
  319. Galatians 4:4–7
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Galatians#4:4
  320. Stendahl 1963.
  321. Dunn 1982, p. n.49.
  322. Finlan 2004, p. 2.
  323. Westerholm 2015, pp. 4–15.
  324. Gal 2.14
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%202:14&version=nrsv
  325. Mack 1997, pp. 88–89, 92.
  326. Mack 1997, pp. 91–92.
  327. Romans 5:6–10, Philippians 2:8
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%205:6–10&version=nrsv
  328. Romans 3:20b, Romans 7:7–12
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%203:20&version=nrsv
  329. Galatians 3:28
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%203:28&version=nrsv
  330. Philippians 3:3–5
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Philippians%203:3–5&version=nrsv
  331. Galatians 6:15
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%206:15&version=nrsv
  332. Romans 6:4
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%206:4&version=nrsv
  333. Jewish Encyclopedia, SIN
    http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13761-sin
  334. Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), ATONEMENT
    http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2092-atonement
  335. Orr 1915, p. 2276.
  336. Sanders 1977.
  337. Dunn 1982.
  338. Galatians 6:16
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%206:16&version=nrsv
  339. Philippians 3:3
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Philippians%203:3&version=nrsv
  340. Galatians 3–4
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%203–4&version=nrsv
  341. Romans 2:16–26
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%202:16–26&version=nrsv
  342. Romans 9–11
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%209–11&version=nrsv
  343. Zechariah 8:20–23
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Zechariah%208:20–23&version=nrsv
  344. Larry Hurtado (4 December 2018 ), "When Christians were Jews": Paula Fredriksen on "The First Generation"
    https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2018/12/04/when-christians-were-jews-paula-fredriksen-on-the-first-generation/
  345. Romans 11:25
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%2011:25&version=nrsv
  346. Jordan Cooper, E.P. Sanders and the New Perspective on Paul
    https://www.patheos.com/blogs/justandsinner/krister-stendahl-and-the-new-perspective-on-paul/
  347. Sanders 1983.
  348. Dunn 1982, pp. 95–122.
  349. "New Perspectives on Paul"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20160913214047/http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_New_Perspectives.htm
  350. Romans 2:13ff
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%202:13&version=nrsv
  351. Ehrman 2006.
  352. N.T. Wright (2018), Hope Deferred? Against the Dogma of Delay, page 58, University of St. Andrews
  353. 1 Corinthians 15:51–53
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%2015:51–53&version=nrsv
  354. 1 Thessalonians 4:16ff
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Thessalonians%204:16&version=nrsv
  355. Rowland 1985, p. 113.
  356. 2 Thessalonians 2:3
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Thessalonians%202:3&version=nrsv
  357. Romans 16:25, 1 Corinthians 10:11, Galatians 1:4
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%2016:25&version=nrsv
  358. Kroeger & Kroeger 1998.
  359. 1 Timothy 2:9–15
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/1_Timothy#2:9
  360. Wright 2006, pp. 5–10.
  361. fuller.edu
    https://web.archive.org/web/20120424185441/http://fuller.edu/academics/faculty/daniel-kirk.aspx
  362. Romans 16:7
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%2016:7&version=nrsv
  363. 1 Corinthians 14
    https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+Corinthians+14&version=tniv
  364. 1 Corinthians 11
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%2011&version=nrsv
  365. Giguzzi 2004, pp. 95–107.
  366. "Prophet, Prophetess, Prophecy". Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology.
  367. Exodus 15:20
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Exodus%2015:20&version=nrsv
  368. Judges 4:4
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Judges%204:4&version=nrsv
  369. Isaiah 8:3
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Isaiah%208:3&version=nrsv
  370. 2 Kings 22:14, 2 Chronicles 34:22
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Kings%2022:14&version=nrsv
  371. Nehemiah 6:14
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Nehemiah%206:14&version=nrsv
  372. Galatians 3:28
    https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:Galatians%203:28
  373. Kirk 2012.
  374. Stagg & Stagg 1978.
  375. Ephesians 5:22–6:5
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Ephesians%205:22–6:5&version=nrsv
  376. Colossians 3:18–4:1
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Colossians%203:18–4:1&version=nrsv
  377. Titus 2:1–10
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Titus%202:1–10&version=nrsv
  378. 1 Peter 3:1–9
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Peter%203:1–9&version=nrsv
  379. Gombis 2005, pp. 317–30.
  380. MacDonald 2004, p. 109.
  381. 1 Corinthians 14:34–36
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%2014:34–36&version=nrsv
  382. Achtemeier 1985, p. 882.
  383. Keller 2010.
  384. Romans 16:3–4
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%2016:3–4&version=nrsv
  385. 1 Corinthians 1:11
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%201:11&version=nrsv
  386. Romans 16:1–2
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%2016:1–2&version=nrsv
  387. Romans 16
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%2016&version=nrsv
  388. The Making of Biblical Womanhood
  389. vatican.va
    https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a6.htm#2357
  390. M. Mikhail. "The Coptic Orthodox Church's View on Homosexuality."
    http://www.coptic.net/articles/OnHomosexuality.txt
  391. "Christianity and Homosexuality"
    http://carm.org/christianity-and-homosexuality
  392. Romans 1:26–27
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%201:26–27&version=nrsv
  393. 1 Corinthians 6:9–10
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%206:9–10&version=nrsv
  394. 1 Timothy 1:8–11
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Timothy%201:8–11&version=nrsv
  395. Ehrman 2000, p. 393.
  396. Collins 2002, p. 4.
  397. Romans 10:4
    https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans+10:4&version=nasb
  398. 1 Corinthians 10:14–17, 1 Corinthians 11:17–34
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%2010:14–17&version=nrsv
  399. Romans 9
    https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%209&version=nrsv
  400. Mack 1995.
  401. "Guzik"
    https://enduringword.com/bible-commentary/romans-1/
  402. Augustine 2019, pp. 354–430.
  403. Herrmann 2016, pp. 475–488.
  404. Parker 1993.
  405. HuffPost
    http://www.huffingtonpost.com/james-d-tabor/christianity-before-paul_b_2200409.html
  406. Maccoby 1998, p. 14.
  407. Wilson 2011, chapters 9, 10, 12.
  408. Dwyer 1998, p. 27.
  409. Wrede 1907, p. 179.
  410. Langton (2010), pp. 23–56
  411. Adang 1996, pp. 105–06.
  412. Langton (2010), pp. 57–96
  413. Langton (2010), pp. 97–153
  414. Langton (2010), pp. 154–76
  415. Boyarin 1994, p. 4.
  416. Langton (2010), pp. 178–209
  417. Langton (2010), pp. 210–30
  418. Langton (2010), pp. 234–62
  419. Langton (2010), pp. 263–78
  420. Pagels 1992, pp. 1–12, 98.
  421. De Young 2004, p. 60.
  422. Riddell 2001, p. 235.
  423. al-Faruqi 1983, p. 21.
  424. Abd al-Jabbar 2010, p. 183.
  425. Waardenburg 1999, p. 255.
  426. al-Faruqi 1967, p. 203.
  427. De Young 2004, p. 64.
  428. al-Faruqi 1967, p. 180.
  429. Guillaume 1998, p. 653.
  430. al-Qummi 2018, p. 49.
  431. Abd al-Jabbar 2010, pp. 153, 183.
  432. al-Shahrastani & Kaylānī, p. 264.
  433. Anthony 2011, p. 68.
  434. Brann 2010, pp. 65–66.
  435. Pall 2013, p. 55.
  436. Ibn Taymiyya 1995, p. 483.
  437. al-Attas 1993, p. 28.
  438. Aslan 2013, p. 118.
  439. Akhtar 2018, p. 269.
  440. Akyol 2017, pp. 56–57.
  441. Jefferson 1854.
  442. Tolstoy 1891, p. 17
  443. Hennacy 2010
  444. bahai-library.com
    https://bahai-library.com/stockman_christianity_bahai_perspective&chapter=5
Image
Source: —
Tip: Wheel or +/− to zoom, drag to pan, Esc to close.