London

London is the capital and largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of 9.1 million people in 2024. Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Western Europe, with a population of 15.1 million. London stands on the River Thames in southeast England, at the head of a 50-mile (80 km) tidal estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a major settlement for nearly 2,000 years. Its ancient core and financial centre, the City of London, was founded by the Romans as Londinium and has retained its medieval boundaries. The City of Westminster, to the west of the City of London, has been the centuries-long host of the national government and parliament. London grew rapidly in the 19th century, becoming the world's largest city at the time. Since the 19th century the name "London" has referred to the metropolis around the City of London, historically split between the counties of Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent and Hertfordshire, which since 1965 has largely comprised the administrative area of Greater London, governed by 33 local authorities and the Greater London Authority. As one of the world's major global cities, London exerts a strong influence on world art, entertainment, fashion, commerce, finance, education, healthcare, media, science, technology, tourism, transport and communications. London is Europe's largest city economy and one of the world's major financial centres. London hosts Europe's largest concentration of higher education institutions, comprising over 50 universities and colleges and enrolling more than 500,000 students as at 2023. It is home to several of the world's leading academic institutions: Imperial College London, internationally recognised for its excellence in natural and applied sciences, and University College London (UCL), a comprehensive research-intensive university, consistently rank among the top ten globally. Other notable institutions include King's College London (KCL), highly regarded in law, humanities and health sciences; the London School of Economics (LSE), globally prominent in social sciences and economics; and specialised institutions such as the Royal College of Art (RCA), Royal Academy of Music (RAM), the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA), the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) and London Business School (LBS). It is the most-visited city in Europe and has the world's busiest city airport system. The London Underground is the world's oldest rapid transit system. London's diverse cultures encompass over 300 languages. The 2025 population of Greater London of just over 9.8 million made it Europe's third-most populous city, accounting for 13.1 per cent of the United Kingdom's population and 15.5 per cent of England's population. The Greater London Built-up Area is the fourth-most populous in Europe, with about 9.8 million inhabitants as of 2011. The London metropolitan area is the third-most-populous in Europe, with about 15 million inhabitants as of 2025, making London a megacity. Four World Heritage Sites are located in London: Kew Gardens; the Tower of London; the site featuring the Palace of Westminster, the Church of St Margaret, and Westminster Abbey; and the historic settlement in Greenwich where the Royal Observatory defines the prime meridian (0° longitude) and Greenwich Mean Time. Other landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Paul's Cathedral, Tower Bridge and Trafalgar Square. The city has the most museums, art galleries, libraries and cultural venues in the UK, including the British Museum, the National Gallery, the Natural History Museum, Tate Modern, the British Library and numerous West End theatres. Important sporting events held in London include the FA Cup Final, the Wimbledon Tennis Championships and the London Marathon. It became the first city to host three Summer Olympic Games upon hosting the 2012 Summer Olympics.

Infobox

Sovereign state

United Kingdom

Country

England

Region

London

Ceremonial counties

mw- Greater LondonCity of London

Settled by Romans

AD 47; 1978 years ago (47), as Londinium

Administrative HQ

City Hall, Newham

Local government

32 London boroughs, the City of London and Queen's Park parish

• Type

Executive mayoralty and deliberative assembly

• Body

Greater London Authority

• Mayor

Sadiq Khan (L)

• London Assembly

14 constituencies

• UK Parliament

74 constituencies

• Total[a]

9,089,736

• Urban

671 sq mi (1,738 km2)

• Metro

3,236 sq mi (8,382 km2)

• Rank

1st in the UK3rd in Europe

• Density

14,980/sq mi (5,782/km2)

• Urban (2011)

9,787,428

• Metro[b] (2025)

15,100,000

Demonyms

Londoner

• Ethnic groups

List 53.8% White 20.7% Asian 13.5% Black 6.3% other 5.7% Mixed

• Religion

List 40.7% Christianity 27.1% no religion 15.0% Islam 5.1% Hinduism 1.7% Judaism 1.6% Sikhism 0.9% Buddhism 1.0% other 7.0% not stated

Time zone

UTC 00:00 (GMT)

• Summer (DST)

UTC 01:00 (BST)

Postcode areas

22 areas E, EC, N, NW, SE, SW, W, WC, BR, CM, CR, DA, EN, HA, IG, KT, RM, SM,UB, WD, TN, TW

Dialling codes

mw- li , li 020016890170801895

GSS code

E12000007 (region)E61000001 (GLA)

GeoTLD

london

Website

london.gov.uk

Tables

Month

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Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Record high °C (°F)

17.2(63.0)

21.2(70.2)

24.5(76.1)

29.4(84.9)

32.8(91.0)

35.6(96.1)

40.2(104.4)

38.1(100.6)

35.0(95.0)

29.5(85.1)

21.1(70.0)

17.4(63.3)

40.2(104.4)

Mean daily maximum °C (°F)

8.4(47.1)

9.0(48.2)

11.7(53.1)

15.0(59.0)

18.4(65.1)

21.6(70.9)

23.9(75.0)

23.4(74.1)

20.2(68.4)

15.8(60.4)

11.5(52.7)

8.8(47.8)

15.7(60.3)

Daily mean °C (°F)

5.6(42.1)

5.8(42.4)

7.9(46.2)

10.5(50.9)

13.7(56.7)

16.8(62.2)

19.0(66.2)

18.7(65.7)

15.9(60.6)

12.3(54.1)

8.4(47.1)

5.9(42.6)

11.7(53.1)

Mean daily minimum °C (°F)

2.7(36.9)

4.1(39.4)

6.0(42.8)

9.1(48.4)

12.0(53.6)

14.2(57.6)

14.1(57.4)

11.6(52.9)

8.8(47.8)

5.3(41.5)

3.1(37.6)

7.8(46.0)

Record low °C (°F)

−16.1(3.0)

−13.9(7.0)

−8.9(16.0)

−5.6(21.9)

−3.1(26.4)

−0.6(30.9)

3.9(39.0)

2.1(35.8)

1.4(34.5)

−5.5(22.1)

−7.1(19.2)

−17.4(0.7)

Average precipitation mm (inches)

58.8(2.31)

45.0(1.77)

38.8(1.53)

42.3(1.67)

45.9(1.81)

47.3(1.86)

45.8(1.80)

52.8(2.08)

49.6(1.95)

65.1(2.56)

66.6(2.62)

57.1(2.25)

615.0(24.21)

Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm)

11.5

9.5

8.5

8.8

8.0

8.3

7.9

8.4

7.9

10.8

11.2

10.8

111.7

Average relative humidity (%)

Average dew point °C (°F)

3(37)

2(36)

4(39)

7(45)

10(50)

12(54)

10(50)

9(48)

6(43)

3(37)

7(44)

Mean monthly sunshine hours

61.1

78.8

124.5

176.7

207.5

208.4

217.8

202.1

157.1

115.2

70.7

55.0

1,674.8

Percentage possible sunshine

Average ultraviolet index

Source 1: Met Office Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute

Source 2: Weather Atlas (percent sunshine and UV Index) CEDA Archive TORRO Time and Date See Climate of London for additional climate information.

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Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	17.2(63.0)	21.2(70.2)	24.5(76.1)	29.4(84.9)	32.8(91.0)	35.6(96.1)	40.2(104.4)	38.1(100.6)	35.0(95.0)	29.5(85.1)	21.1(70.0)	17.4(63.3)	40.2(104.4)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)	8.4(47.1)	9.0(48.2)	11.7(53.1)	15.0(59.0)	18.4(65.1)	21.6(70.9)	23.9(75.0)	23.4(74.1)	20.2(68.4)	15.8(60.4)	11.5(52.7)	8.8(47.8)	15.7(60.3)
Daily mean °C (°F)	5.6(42.1)	5.8(42.4)	7.9(46.2)	10.5(50.9)	13.7(56.7)	16.8(62.2)	19.0(66.2)	18.7(65.7)	15.9(60.6)	12.3(54.1)	8.4(47.1)	5.9(42.6)	11.7(53.1)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)	2.7(36.9)	2.7(36.9)	4.1(39.4)	6.0(42.8)	9.1(48.4)	12.0(53.6)	14.2(57.6)	14.1(57.4)	11.6(52.9)	8.8(47.8)	5.3(41.5)	3.1(37.6)	7.8(46.0)
Record low °C (°F)	−16.1(3.0)	−13.9(7.0)	−8.9(16.0)	−5.6(21.9)	−3.1(26.4)	−0.6(30.9)	3.9(39.0)	2.1(35.8)	1.4(34.5)	−5.5(22.1)	−7.1(19.2)	−17.4(0.7)	−17.4(0.7)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	58.8(2.31)	45.0(1.77)	38.8(1.53)	42.3(1.67)	45.9(1.81)	47.3(1.86)	45.8(1.80)	52.8(2.08)	49.6(1.95)	65.1(2.56)	66.6(2.62)	57.1(2.25)	615.0(24.21)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm)	11.5	9.5	8.5	8.8	8.0	8.3	7.9	8.4	7.9	10.8	11.2	10.8	111.7
Average relative humidity (%)	80	77	70	65	67	65	65	69	73	78	81	81	73
Average dew point °C (°F)	3(37)	2(36)	2(36)	4(39)	7(45)	10(50)	12(54)	12(54)	10(50)	9(48)	6(43)	3(37)	7(44)
Mean monthly sunshine hours	61.1	78.8	124.5	176.7	207.5	208.4	217.8	202.1	157.1	115.2	70.7	55.0	1,674.8
Percentage possible sunshine	23	28	31	40	41	41	42	45	40	35	27	21	35
Average ultraviolet index	1	1	2	4	5	6	6	5	4	2	1	0	3
Source 1: Met Office Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute
Source 2: Weather Atlas (percent sunshine and UV Index) CEDA Archive TORRO Time and Date See Climate of London for additional climate information.

2021 census - population of London by country of birth[205] · Demographics › Country of birth

United Kingdom

Country of birth

United Kingdom

Population

5,223,986

Per cent

59.4

Non-United Kingdom

Country of birth

Non-United Kingdom

Population

3,575,739

Per cent

40.6

India

Country of birth

India

Population

322,644

Per cent

3.7

Romania

Country of birth

Romania

Population

175,991

Per cent

2.0

Poland

Country of birth

Poland

Population

149,397

Per cent

1.7

Bangladesh

Country of birth

Bangladesh

Population

138,895

Per cent

1.6

Pakistan

Country of birth

Pakistan

Population

129,774

Per cent

1.5

Italy

Country of birth

Italy

Population

126,059

Per cent

1.4

Nigeria

Country of birth

Nigeria

Population

117,145

Per cent

1.3

Ireland

Country of birth

Ireland

Population

96,566

Per cent

1.1

Sri Lanka

Country of birth

Sri Lanka

Population

80,379

Per cent

0.9

France

Country of birth

France

Population

77,715

Per cent

0.9

Others

Country of birth

Others

Population

2,161,174

Per cent

24.6

Total

Country of birth

Total

Population

8,799,725

Per cent

100.0

Country of birth	Population	Per cent
United Kingdom	5,223,986	59.4
Non-United Kingdom	3,575,739	40.6
India	322,644	3.7
Romania	175,991	2.0
Poland	149,397	1.7
Bangladesh	138,895	1.6
Pakistan	129,774	1.5
Italy	126,059	1.4
Nigeria	117,145	1.3
Ireland	96,566	1.1
Sri Lanka	80,379	0.9
France	77,715	0.9
Others	2,161,174	24.6
Total	8,799,725	100.0

References

Averages are taken from Heathrow, and extremes are taken from stations across London.
London region
London metropolitan area
/ˈlʌndən/, LUN-dən
Although conventionally considered a city, only the ceremonial county of the City of London and the City of Westminster
See also: Independent city § National capitals.
The Greater London Authority consists of the Mayor of London and the London Assembly. The London Mayor is distinguished
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The Guardian
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Encyclopaedia Britannica
https://www.britannica.com/place/London/Finance
www.bloomberg.com
https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-09-23/singapore-overtakes-hong-kong-in-world-financial-centers-ranking
A.T. Kearney
https://web.archive.org/web/20180620232225/https://www.atkearney.com/2018-global-cities-report
London Evening Standard
https://www.standard.co.uk/business/shein-ethics-labour-london-stock-exchange-ipo-flotation-float-fast-fashion-clothes-environment-b1162619.html
Fortune
https://fortune.com/2023/10/31/uk-stock-market-doom-loop-london-financial-capital/
Reuters
https://web.archive.org/web/20160918105609/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-global-markets-bis-britain-idUKKCN11O0C4
The New York Times
https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/21/business/global/21rglofinuk.html
For Whom the Bell Tolls
https://archive.org/details/forwhombelltolls0000mant
Service Operations Management
London Stock Exchange
https://web.archive.org/web/20090609022757/http://www.londonstockexchange.com/en-gb/
The Washington Post
https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/adrian-cadbury-a-leader-in-corporate-governance-dies-at-86/2015/09/04/e87dd2fe-532e-11e5-8c19-0b6825aa4a3a_story.html
Oxford Economic Forecasting on behalf of the Corporation of London
https://web.archive.org/web/20060525075622/http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/2CAE66FB-2DD5-41A5-B916-8FFC37276059/0/BC_RS_lpuk_0511_FR.pdf
World Cities, City Worlds
"The world's biggest ad agency is going all in on AI with Nvidia's help"
https://edition.cnn.com/2023/05/29/tech/nvidia-wpp-ai-advertising/index.html
"London gets go ahead for new '.london' internet domain"
https://web.archive.org/web/20130614213446/http://www.londonandpartners.com/media-centre/press-releases/2013/130610-london-gets-go-ahead-for-new-london-internet-domain
fDiIntelligence.com
https://web.archive.org/web/20141112110111/http://www.fdiintelligence.com/Locations/Europe/European-Cities-and-Regions-of-the-Future-2014-15
BBC
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/6291422.stm
"Gas distributors"
https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/gas/distribution-networks/gb-gas-distribution-network
"Electricity distributor"
https://web.archive.org/web/20140914184550/http://www2.nationalgrid.com/uk/Our-company/electricity/Distribution-Network-Operator-Companies/
"MasterCard – 2015 Global Destination Cities Index"
https://newsroom.mastercard.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/MasterCard-GDCI-2015-Final-Report1.pdf
London and Partners
https://files.londonandpartners.com/l-and-p/assets/london_tourism_vision_aug_2017.pdf
"VisitBritain"
https://www.visitbritain.org/visitor-economy-facts
BBC News
https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c39v2ddn4p4o
Bloomberg
https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-04-26/what-city-has-the-most-hotel-rooms-london-to-pass-las-vegas-tokyo?embedded-checkout=true
Londonist
https://londonist.com/london/history/historic-hotels
"Transport for London"
http://www.tfl.gov.uk/
"How do I find out about transport in London?"
https://web.archive.org/web/20071019055413/http://www.london.gov.uk/help/faq.jsp
Heathrow Airport
https://www.heathrow.com/content/dam/heathrow/web/common/documents/company/heathrow-2-0-sustainability/futher-reading/Heathrow-Airport-Travel-Report-2019.pdf
"Heathrow Airport Terminal 5"
https://web.archive.org/web/20110430195211/http://www.heathrow-airport-uk.info/heathrow-airport-terminal-5.htm
Civil Aviation Authority
https://www.caa.co.uk/Data-and-analysis/UK-aviation-market/Airlines/Datasets/UK-Airline-data/2017/Airline-data-annual-reports-2017/
stanstedairport.com
http://www.stanstedairport.com/about-us/london-stansted-airport-and-mag/facts-and-figures/
London Luton Airport
https://web.archive.org/web/20110501023741/http://www.london-luton.co.uk/en
"London City Airport — Corporate Information"
https://web.archive.org/web/20110423115236/http://www.londoncityairport.com/Default.aspx
"Londoners love our airport"
http://www.echo-news.co.uk/news/16234556.Londoners_love_our_airport/?ref=rss
Civil Aviation Authority
http://www.caa.co.uk/Data-and-analysis/UK-aviation-market/Airports/Datasets/UK-Airport-data/Airport-data-2017/
BBC News
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-20641351
City Metric
https://web.archive.org/web/20190612085224/https://www.citymetric.com/transport/what-largest-metro-system-world-1361
"A brief history of the Underground"
https://tfl.gov.uk/corporate/about-tfl/culture-and-heritage/londons-transport-a-history/london-underground/a-brief-history-of-the-underground
"Tube breaks record for passenger numbers"
https://web.archive.org/web/20110427025251/http://www.tfl.gov.uk/static/corporate/media/newscentre/archive/7103.html
"The London 2012 legacy"
https://web.archive.org/web/20121018211357/http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsandschemes/25869.aspx
"London's transport - a history: Docklands Light Railway (DLR)"
http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/about-tfl/culture-and-heritage/londons-transport-a-history/dlr
"First Capital Connect"
https://web.archive.org/web/20100130091433/http://www.firstcapitalconnect.co.uk/Main.php?sEvent=HomePage
"Rail Station Usage"
http://www.rail-reg.gov.uk/server/show/nav.1529
Evening Standard
https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/london-underground-northern-line-clapham-junction-wandsworth-borough-council-b1056869.html
"Crossrail opening date finally announced"
https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/crossrail-elizabeth-line-opening-date-announced-may-24-london-tube-tfl-transport-for-london-b997837.html
Crossrail
https://web.archive.org/web/20101024104105/http://www.crossrail.co.uk/route/maps/regional-map
BBC News
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-16289051
London First
https://web.archive.org/web/20140407083946/http://londonfirst.co.uk/our-focus/londons-transport-infrastructure/rail/
National Rail
https://web.archive.org/web/20210423051734/https://www.nationalrail.co.uk/TOCs%20AS%20v46%20Dec%202020.pdf
Country Life
https://www.countrylife.co.uk/out-and-about/the-flying-scotsman-how-the-first-100mph-locomotive-became-the-most-famous-train-in-the-world-252287
BBC News
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/7093761.stm
"Highspeed"
https://web.archive.org/web/20110501110057/http://www.southeasternrailway.co.uk/highspeed/
gov.uk
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/phase-2a-act-to-bring-hs2-to-the-north
"What we do – Buses"
http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/about-tfl/what-we-do/buses
"Annual bus statistics: England 2019/20"
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/929992/annual-bus-statistics-year-ending-march-2020.pdf
GOV.UK
https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/bus05-subsidies-and-concessions
Sunrise Medical
https://www.sunrisemedical.com.au/blog/world-accessible-cities
"Ten years of TfL's iBus has given greater independence to customers with hearing or visual impairments"
https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/media/press-releases/2019/april/ten-years-of-tfl-s-ibus-has-given-greater-independence-to-customers-with-hearing-or-visual-impairments
London Transport Buses in the 1960s
"Victoria Coach Station to remain major coach hub"
https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/media/press-releases/2019/august/victoria-coach-station-to-remain-major-coach-hub
Statista
https://www.statista.com/statistics/305537/passenger-journeys-on-croydon-tramlink-uk/
"Statement of Accounts for the Year Ended 31 March 2008"
https://content.tfl.gov.uk/6-Statement-of-Acounts-2008.pdf
BBC News
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-18619936
Transport for London
http://content.tfl.gov.uk/travel-in-london-report-9.pdf
citypopulation.de
https://www.citypopulation.de/en/uk/greaterlondon/
Travel in London
http://content.tfl.gov.uk/travel-in-london-report-9.pdf
Department for Transport
http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110203090417/http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/statistics/datatablespublications/maritime/ports/provportstats2009
Rick Steves England
thamesclippers.com
https://www.thamesclippers.com/commuters/commute-by-river
Transport of London
https://web.archive.org/web/20130922034512/http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/media/newscentre/archive/27762.aspx
"M25"
https://web.archive.org/web/20180626030215/http://www.highways.gov.uk/our-road-network/our-network/key-roads/m25/
Sabre-roads.org.uk
https://web.archive.org/web/20211115121242/https://www.sabre-roads.org.uk/roadlists/f99/1.shtml
BBC
https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20130409-chipping-away-at-the-history-of-fish-and-chips
"THE RULES: Why can London taxis choose to display advertising livery, but minicabs can't?"
https://www.taxi-point.co.uk/post/the-rules-why-can-london-taxis-choose-to-display-advertising-livery-but-minicabs-can-t
The Guardian
https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/mar/16/boris-johnson-congestion-charge
The Conversation
https://theconversation.com/london-congestion-charge-what-worked-what-didnt-what-next-92478
Verdict Traffic
https://web.archive.org/web/20230519182110/https://www.roadtraffic-technology.com/projects/congestion/
Table 3 in Santos, Georgina; Button, Kenneth; Noll, Roger G. "London Congestion Charging/Comments." Brookings-Wharton Pa
Smithsonian
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/short-history-crosswalk-180965339/
The Guardian
https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2024/mar/08/health-gains-of-low-traffic-schemes-up-to-100-times-greater-than-costs-study-finds
Top Universities
https://web.archive.org/web/20150914234029/https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2015#sorting=rank+region=+country=+faculty=+stars=false+search=
timeshighereducation.com
https://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/2013-14/world-ranking/analysis/capital-offer
"Pricewaterhousecoopers"
https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143014/http://pdf.pwc.co.uk/cities-of-opportunity-2014-london.pdf
Top Universities
https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2023
Times Higher Education
https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/ref-2021-research-excellence-framework-results-announced
The Times
https://web.archive.org/web/20081202225123/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/education/sunday_times_university_guide/article2496158.ece
Financial Times
http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/global-mba-rankings
Top Universities
https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/university-subject-rankings/2020/performing-arts
Top Universities.com
https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/university-subject-rankings/2022/performing-arts
"Financial Statements 2018–19"
https://london.ac.uk/sites/default/files/governance/university-of-london-financial-statement-2018-19.pdf
HESA
https://web.archive.org/web/20070928044330/http://www.hesa.ac.uk/dox/dataTables/studentsAndQualifiers/download/institution0506.xls
University of London
https://london.ac.uk/ways-study/study-campus-london/member-institutions
The Guardian
https://www.theguardian.com/education/2008/may/01/universityguide.highereducation42
The Guardian
https://www.theguardian.com/society/2008/aug/07/health.highereducation
National Institutes of Health
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4557413
NOVA online
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/photo51/anat-flash.html
Croydon Advertiser
http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife/11-famous-former-pupils-you-432659
"Schools: Harrow School"
https://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/middx/vol1/pp299-302
A Dictionary of Astronomy
Encyclopædia Britannica
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Royal-Society
"History of the Christmas Lectures"
http://www.rigb.org/christmas-lectures/history
london.gov.uk
https://web.archive.org/web/20031219084151/http://www.london.gov.uk/mayor/economic_unit/spending_time.jsp
tickx.co.uk
https://web.archive.org/web/20171201232544/https://www.tickx.co.uk/article/772
London.gov.uk
https://web.archive.org/web/20151001092404/https://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/arts-culture/promoting-arts-culture/20-facts-about-london-s-culture
Financial Times
https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/54e31212-17f1-11e4-b842-00144feabdc0.html
"Piccadilly Lights"
https://web.archive.org/web/20110426103109/http://www.piccadillylights.co.uk/
The Royal Institution
https://www.rigb.org/explore-science/explore/collection/tour-michael-faraday-london
Sondheim and Lloyd-Webber: the new musical The New York Times referred to Andrew Lloyd Webber as "the most commercially
https://books.google.com/books?id=AWaZ1LAFAZEC
The Guardian
https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2012/nov/20/mousetrap-60-years-agatha-christie
"Theatres and concert halls"
https://web.archive.org/web/20080124185332/http://www.yourlondon.gov.uk/visiting/topic.jsp?topicid=6482&search_title=Theatres%2Band%2Bconcert%2Bhalls
Encyclopedia of London's East End
BBC History
https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/trail/local_history/city/street_03.shtml?publichouses
"Oxford Street gets its own dedicated local police team"
https://web.archive.org/web/20070930204913/http://www.london.gov.uk/londoner/06sep/p7a.jsp
Reuters
https://web.archive.org/web/20110220031529/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/02/17/uk-retail-major-cities-idUKLNE71G00420110217
Evening Standard
https://www.standard.co.uk/hp/front/london-is-worlds-shopping-capital-with-ps62billion-sales-6568278.html
The Guinness Book of Records 1994
Time Out
https://www.timeout.com/london/shopping/british-boot-company
Destination London. The Expansion of the Visitor Economy
The Guardian
https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2009/jan/13/stamps-british-design-classics
Fashion Network
https://uk.fashionnetwork.com/news/London-crowned-top-city-for-luxury-store-openings,1083671.html
LDN Fashion
https://www.ldnfashion.com/features/top-10-london-fashion-week-moments/
Huffington Post
https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/burberry-london-fashion-week-cara-delevingne-naomi-campbell-kate-moss_uk_59bd7249e4b0edff971c9364
"Chinatown — Official website"
https://web.archive.org/web/20110501115502/http://www.chinatownlondon.org/
Londonist
https://londonist.com/london/how-london-got-a-taste-for-chinese-food
English Breakfast Society
https://englishbreakfastsociety.com/full-english-breakfast.html
Daily Record
https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/entertainment/celebrity/gordon-ramsay-celebrates-having-three-26251935
Forbes
https://www.forbes.com/sites/joanneshurvell/2017/11/29/afternoon-tea-at-oscar-wildes-favorite-bar/
You
https://www.you.co.uk/themed-afternoon-teas/
My London
https://www.mylondon.news/news/west-london-news/inside-factory-bbc-documentary-goes-13415002
"One Queen, Two Birthdays"
http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page4820.asp
"Celebrate the Bengali New Year this summer in Tower Hamlets"
http://www.eastlondonlines.co.uk/2018/05/celebrate-the-bengali-new-year-this-summer-in-tower-hamlets/
BBC
https://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2002/04_april/17/chelseapack.pdf
London and the Culture of Homosexuality, 1885–1914 (Cambridge Studies in Nineteenth-Century Literature and Culture)
https://archive.org/details/londoncultureofh00matt
Olson, Donald. London for Dummies (Volume 136 of Dummies Travel). John Wiley & Sons, 2 February 2010. 6th Edition. ISBN
https://books.google.com/books?id=vrayaSsuQbUC&pg=PA67
The Guardian
https://www.theguardian.com/music/2019/nov/30/40-years-of-sheer-heaven-london-gay-superclub
Flavorwire
http://flavorwire.com/539534/we-live-in-the-world-rocky-horror-created
"Boy George"
https://web.archive.org/web/20110830193512/http://theblitzkids.com/site_archive/theblitzkids/menuboy.html
"London in Literature"
http://www.brynmawr.edu/library/speccoll/guides/london/londoninliterature.shtml
"Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde"
https://www.britishlibrary.cn/en/works/jekyllandhyde/
Encyclopaedia Britannica
https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-War-of-the-Worlds-novel-by-Wells#ref343460
Orwell Society
https://orwellsociety.com/orwell-in-the-evening-standard/
The Guardian
https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/jul/23/winnie-the-pooh-goes-to-harrods-in-new-authorised-aa-milne-prequel
Paddington.com
https://web.archive.org/web/20160817131744/http://paddington.com/global/about/timeline/
The Guardian
https://www.theguardian.com/childrens-books-site/gallery/2016/jun/24/the-bfg-quentin-blake-roald-dahl
The Economist
https://www.economist.com/christmas-specials/2009/12/17/the-harry-potter-economy
Filmlondon.org.uk
https://web.archive.org/web/20170810011712/http://filmlondon.org.uk/studio-contacts
UK Screen Alliance
https://www.ukscreenalliance.co.uk/subpages/the-uks-vfx-industry-in-profile/
The Imaginarium Studios
https://web.archive.org/web/20121031092554/http://www.theimaginariumstudios.com/who-we-are
The Guardian
https://www.theguardian.com/arts/critic/feature/0,1169,717532,00.html
"The UK's biggest screen, BFI IMAX, to be operated by the BFI"
https://www.bfi.org.uk/news/bfi-imax-operated-bfi
"The Fellowship: BAFTA's top prize"
https://heritage.bafta.org/moment/1971/the-fellowship-baftas-top-prize/60
Variety
https://variety.com/2020/film/global/kate-winslet-saoirse-ronan-london-film-festival-1234748238/
The Guardian
https://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/oct/26/x-factor-cowell-fuller
"ITV: Simon Cowell Talks Strong Ties With Brit Broadcaster"
https://variety.com/2015/tv/spotlight/itv-simon-cowell-talks-strong-ties-with-brit-broadcaster-1201467913/
Radio Times
https://www.radiotimes.com/programme/b-zteorv/da-ali-g-show/
"EastEnders Episode 1, 19/02/1985"
https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b053l8b7
The British Library
https://web.archive.org/web/20181119150309/https://www.bl.uk/events/the-life-and-curiosity-of-hans-sloane
William Wilkins, 1778–1839
World Atlas
https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/5-largest-libraries-in-the-world.html
Evening Standard
https://www.standard.co.uk/futurelondon/culturecity/best-libraries-in-london-wellcome-trust-british-library-canada-water-victoria-and-albert-guildhall-a4072696.html
National Portrait Gallery
http://www.npg.org.uk/about/organisation.php
Visit London
https://www.visitlondon.com/things-to-do/place/442404-millennium-bridge
The Layman's Magazine of the Living Church, Issues 1–20
BBC
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7537782.stm
"Guitar amp pioneer Jim Marshall dies aged 88"
https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-17625335
"2015 Year End Worldwide Ticket Sales – Top 200 Area Venues"
http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517203229/http://www.pollstarpro.com/files/charts2015/2015YearEndWorldwideTicketSalesTop200ArenaVenues.pdf
Time Out London
https://www.timeout.com/london/music-festivals/the-best-music-festivals-in-london?package_page=48331
London, Reign Over Me How England's Capital Built Classic Rock
London's top 40 artists
https://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2006/04/06/garycrowley_londontop40_feature.shtml
Michael Hoppen Gallery
https://www.michaelhoppengallery.com/news/55/#:~:text=After%20a%20brief%20stint%20managing,the%20radical%20punk%20clothing%20style.
"History of music in London"
https://web.archive.org/web/20110427023619/http://www.londonbc.co.uk/history-of-music-in-london.html
Dawn of the DAW: The Studio as Musical Instrument
https://books.google.com/books?id=rPdJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23
The Washington Post
https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1983/08/02/eddy-grants-electric-rock-38/74a1753f-17b5-451b-b873-e1fd9f9237b0/
Brit Awards
https://web.archive.org/web/20180826032516/http://www.brits.co.uk/history/shows/1977
edie.net
https://www.edie.net/news/6/London--greenest-city--in-Europe-/
www.london.gov.uk
https://www.london.gov.uk/programmes-strategies/environment-and-climate-change/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/london-national-park-city
"Kensington Gardens"
https://web.archive.org/web/20100527231143/http://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/kensington_gardens/
"Madame Tussauds, London"
https://web.archive.org/web/20110427094710/http://www.tourist-information-uk.com/madame-tussauds.htm
Dictionary of London Place Names
https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45406491
"Green Park"
https://web.archive.org/web/20090904010152/http://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/green_park/about.cfm
"Park details – Hampton Court"
https://web.archive.org/web/20150826172424/http://www.richmond.gov.uk/home/services/leisure_and_culture/parks_and_open_spaces/park_details.htm?parkId=268
Smithsonian
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/how-a-victorian-dinosaur-park-became-a-time-capsule-of-early-paleontology-180982799/
"Kew, History & Heritage"
https://web.archive.org/web/20080829192523/http://www.kew.org/ksheets/pdfs/k16kewhistory.pdf
brochure
https://web.archive.org/web/20110704191340/http://217.154.230.195/NR/rdonlyres/A3CB6563-4D0D-4C35-AC7F-818C28306E79/0/OS_EF_Dogs.pdf
"Corporation of London Open Spaces"
https://web.archive.org/web/20081029232404/http://www.ramblers.org.uk/info/parks/name/c/corporationoflondon.htm
"Kenwood House"
http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/nav.00100200800k00800f
Time Out
https://www.timeout.com/london/things-to-do/best-theme-parks-in-and-around-london
innerlondonramblers.org.uk
http://www.innerlondonramblers.org.uk/ideasforwalks.html
Sustrans
http://www.sustrans.org.uk/ncn/map/route/wandle-trail
Wembley Stadium connected by EE
https://web.archive.org/web/20200326114025/http://www.wembleystadium.com/about/about-wembley-stadium
Commonwealth Games Federation
https://web.archive.org/web/20110429043207/http://www.thecgf.com/countries/intro.asp?loc=ENG
Gamesbids.com
https://web.archive.org/web/20111113180038/http://www.gamesbids.com/eng/other_news/1216135963.html
"Barclays Premier League Clubs"
https://web.archive.org/web/20181203140113/https://www.premierleague.com/clubs/
"Premiership Rugby: Clubs"
https://web.archive.org/web/20110427075926/http://www.premiershiprugby.com/clubs/index.php
"RFU apply for two additional concerts at Twickenham Stadium in 2007"
https://web.archive.org/web/20080625050620/http://www.rfu.com/microsites/twickenham/index.cfm?StoryID=14822
"Challenge Cup final heading to Tottenham in 2022"
https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/wembley-daniel-levy-white-hart-lane-covid-castleford-b1901268.html
"Wimbledon — official website"
https://web.archive.org/web/20080423182334/http://www.wimbledon.org/en_GB/index.html
The New York Times
https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/05/sports/tennis/05wimbledon.html
Britain and the Americas
Wimbledon.com
https://www.wimbledon.com/en_GB/atoz/official_partners.html
"Lord's (Cricket Grounds)"
http://www.espncricinfo.com/england/content/ground/57129.html
"Royal St George's"
https://www.theopen.com/venues/royal-st-georges
"Small Hall Spotlight: York Hall – a piece of living boxing history"
https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/boxing/62692572
"Flora London Marathon 2008"
https://web.archive.org/web/20080426224024/http://www.london-marathon.co.uk/site/
"The Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race — Official Website"
http://www.theboatrace.org/