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Julius Caesar

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Julius Caesar

Gaius Julius Caesar (12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war. He subsequently became dictator from 49 BC until his assassination in 44 BC. Caesar played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed the First Triumvirate, an informal political alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to amass political power were opposed by many in the Senate, among them Cato the Younger with the private support of Cicero. Caesar rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string of military victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, which greatly extended Roman territory. During this time, he both invaded Britain and built a bridge across the river Rhine. These achievements and the support of his veteran army threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey. The alliance between Caesar and Pompey slowly broke down and, by 50 BC, Pompey had realigned himself with the Senate. With his command expiring and the Gallic Wars largely concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. In early January 49 BC, Caesar openly defied the Senate by crossing the Rubicon and marching towards Rome at the head of an army. This began Caesar's civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of near-unchallenged power and influence in 45 BC. After assuming control of government and pardoning many of his enemies, Caesar set upon a vigorous reform and building programme. He created the Julian calendar to replace the republican lunisolar calendar, reduced the size of the grain dole, settled his veterans in new overseas colonies, greatly increased the size of the Senate, and extended citizenship to communities in Spain and what is now northern Italy. In early 44 BC, he was proclaimed "dictator for life" (dictator perpetuo). Fearful of his power, domination of the state, and the possibility that he might make himself king, a group of senators led by Brutus and Cassius assassinated Caesar on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC. A new series of civil wars broke out and the constitutional government of the Republic was never fully restored. Caesar's great-nephew and adoptive heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents thirteen years later. Octavian then set about solidifying his power, transforming the Republic into the Roman Empire as its emperor. Caesar was an accomplished author and historian; much of his life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns. Other contemporary sources include the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of Sallust. Later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also important sources. Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history. His cognomen was subsequently adopted as a synonym for "emperor"; the title "Caesar" was used throughout the Roman Empire, and gave rise to modern descendants such as Kaiser and Tsar. He has frequently appeared in literary and artistic works.

Infobox

Born
12 or 13 July 100 BCSuburra, Rome
Died
15 March 44 BC (aged 55)Theatre of Pompey, Rome
Cause of death
Assassination (stab wounds)
Occupations
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Notable work
mw- Bellum GallicumBellum Civile
Office
Pontifex maximus 64–44 BC Praetor 62 BC Consul 59 BC Proconsul (Gaul, Illyricum) 58–49 BC Dictator 49–44 BC Consul 48, 46–44 BC Dictator perpetuo 44 BC
Spouse(s)
Cossutia (disputed) Cornelia m. 84 BC; d. 69 BC Pompeia m. 67 BC; div. 61 BC Calpurnia m. 59 BC
Partner
Cleopatra
Children
JuliaCaesarion (unacknowledged)Augustus (adoptive)
Parents
Gaius Julius CaesarAurelia
Awards
Civic Crown
Allegiance
Roman Republic
Branch/service
Roman Army
Years of service
81–45 BC
Commands
XIII Legion
Battles/wars
mw- li Siege of Mytilene Gallic Wars Invasions of Britain Caesar's civil war Alexandrian war ...(see Military campaigns of Julius Caesar)

Tables

· Legacy › Battle record
58 BC 58 BC
58 BC 58 BC
Date
58 BC 58 BC
War
Gallic Wars
Action
Arar Battle of the Arar
Opponents
Helvetii
Type
Battle
Present-day areas
France
Outcome
Victory ⁂
58 BC 58 BC
58 BC 58 BC
Date
58 BC 58 BC
War
Mount Haemus Battle of Bibracte
Action
Helvetii, Boii, Tulingi, Rauraci
Opponents
Battle
Type
France
Present-day areas
Victory ⁂
58 BC 58 BC
58 BC 58 BC
Date
58 BC 58 BC
War
Vosges Battle of Vosges
Action
Suebi
Opponents
Battle
Type
France
Present-day areas
Victory ⁂
57 BC 57 BC
57 BC 57 BC
Date
57 BC 57 BC
War
Battle of the Axona
Action
Belgae
Opponents
Battle
Type
France
Present-day areas
Victory ⁂
57 BC 57 BC
57 BC 57 BC
Date
57 BC 57 BC
War
Battle of the Sabis Battle of the Sabis
Action
Nervii, Viromandui, Atrebates, Aduatuci
Opponents
Battle
Type
France
Present-day areas
Victory ⁂
56 BC56 BC
56 BC56 BC
Date
56 BC56 BC
War
Battle of Morbihan Battle of Morbihan
Action
Veneti
Opponents
Battle
Type
France
Present-day areas
Victory ⁂
55 and 54 BC55 and 54 BC
55 and 54 BC55 and 54 BC
Date
55 and 54 BC55 and 54 BC
War
Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain
Action
Celtic Britons
Opponents
Campaign
Type
England
Present-day areas
Victory ⁂
54 BC–53 BC 54 BC–53 BC
54 BC–53 BC 54 BC–53 BC
Date
54 BC–53 BC 54 BC–53 BC
War
Ambiorix's revolt Ambiorix's revolt
Action
Eburones
Opponents
Campaign
Type
Belgium, France
Present-day areas
Victory ⁂
52 BC 52 BC
52 BC 52 BC
Date
52 BC 52 BC
War
Avaricum Avaricum
Action
Bituriges, Arverni
Opponents
Siege
Type
France
Present-day areas
Victory ⁂
52 BC 52 BC
52 BC 52 BC
Date
52 BC 52 BC
War
Battle of Gergovia Battle of Gergovia
Action
Gallic tribes
Opponents
Battle
Type
France
Present-day areas
Defeat
September 52 BC
September 52 BC
Date
September 52 BC
War
Battle of Alesia Battle of Alesia
Action
Gallic Confederation
Opponents
Siege and Battle
Type
Alise-Sainte-Reine, France
Present-day areas
Decisive victory ⁂
51 BC 51 BC
51 BC 51 BC
Date
51 BC 51 BC
War
Siege of Uxellodunum Siege of Uxellodunum
Action
Gallic
Opponents
Siege
Type
Vayrac, France
Present-day areas
Victory ⁂
June–August 49 BC June–August 49 BC
June–August 49 BC June–August 49 BC
Date
June–August 49 BC June–August 49 BC
War
Caesar's Civil War
Action
Battle of Ilerda Battle of Ilerda
Opponents
Optimates.
Type
Battle
Present-day areas
Catalonia, Spain
Outcome
Victory ⁂
10 July 48 BC 10 July 48 BC
10 July 48 BC 10 July 48 BC
Date
10 July 48 BC 10 July 48 BC
War
Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)
Action
Optimates
Opponents
Battle
Type
Durrës, Albania
Present-day areas
Defeat ⁂
9 August 48 BC 9 August 48 BC
9 August 48 BC 9 August 48 BC
Date
9 August 48 BC 9 August 48 BC
War
Battle of Pharsalus
Action
Pompeians
Opponents
Battle
Type
Greece
Present-day areas
Decisive Victory ⁂
47 BC 47 BC
47 BC 47 BC
Date
47 BC 47 BC
War
Battle of the Nile
Action
Ptolemaic Kingdom
Opponents
Battle
Type
Alexandria, Egypt
Present-day areas
Victory ⁂
2 August 47 BC 2 August 47 BC
2 August 47 BC 2 August 47 BC
Date
2 August 47 BC 2 August 47 BC
War
Battle of Zela
Action
Kingdom of Pontus
Opponents
Battle
Type
Zile, Turkey
Present-day areas
Victory ⁂
4 January 46 BC 4 January 46 BC
4 January 46 BC 4 January 46 BC
Date
4 January 46 BC 4 January 46 BC
War
Battle of Ruspina Battle of Ruspina
Action
Optimates, Numidia
Opponents
Battle
Type
Ruspina Africa
Present-day areas
Defeat ⁂
6 April 46 BC 6 April 46 BC
6 April 46 BC 6 April 46 BC
Date
6 April 46 BC 6 April 46 BC
War
Battle of Thapsus Battle of Thapsus
Action
Optimates, Numidia
Opponents
Battle
Type
Tunisia
Present-day areas
Decisive Victory ⁂
17 March 45 BC 17 March 45 BC
17 March 45 BC 17 March 45 BC
Date
17 March 45 BC 17 March 45 BC
War
Battle of Munda Battle of Munda
Action
Pompeians
Opponents
Battle
Type
Andalusia Spain
Present-day areas
Victory ⁂
Date
War
Action
Opponents
Type
Present-day areas
Outcome
58 BC 58 BC
Gallic Wars
Arar Battle of the Arar
Helvetii
Battle
France
Victory ⁂
58 BC 58 BC
Mount Haemus Battle of Bibracte
Helvetii, Boii, Tulingi, Rauraci
Battle
France
Victory ⁂
58 BC 58 BC
Vosges Battle of Vosges
Suebi
Battle
France
Victory ⁂
57 BC 57 BC
Battle of the Axona
Belgae
Battle
France
Victory ⁂
57 BC 57 BC
Battle of the Sabis Battle of the Sabis
Nervii, Viromandui, Atrebates, Aduatuci
Battle
France
Victory ⁂
56 BC56 BC
Battle of Morbihan Battle of Morbihan
Veneti
Battle
France
Victory ⁂
55 and 54 BC55 and 54 BC
Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain
Celtic Britons
Campaign
England
Victory ⁂
54 BC–53 BC 54 BC–53 BC
Ambiorix's revolt Ambiorix's revolt
Eburones
Campaign
Belgium, France
Victory ⁂
52 BC 52 BC
Avaricum Avaricum
Bituriges, Arverni
Siege
France
Victory ⁂
52 BC 52 BC
Battle of Gergovia Battle of Gergovia
Gallic tribes
Battle
France
Defeat
September 52 BC
Battle of Alesia Battle of Alesia
Gallic Confederation
Siege and Battle
Alise-Sainte-Reine, France
Decisive victory ⁂
51 BC 51 BC
Siege of Uxellodunum Siege of Uxellodunum
Gallic
Siege
Vayrac, France
Victory ⁂
June–August 49 BC June–August 49 BC
Caesar's Civil War
Battle of Ilerda Battle of Ilerda
Optimates.
Battle
Catalonia, Spain
Victory ⁂
10 July 48 BC 10 July 48 BC
Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)
Optimates
Battle
Durrës, Albania
Defeat ⁂
9 August 48 BC 9 August 48 BC
Battle of Pharsalus
Pompeians
Battle
Greece
Decisive Victory ⁂
47 BC 47 BC
Battle of the Nile
Ptolemaic Kingdom
Battle
Alexandria, Egypt
Victory ⁂
2 August 47 BC 2 August 47 BC
Battle of Zela
Kingdom of Pontus
Battle
Zile, Turkey
Victory ⁂
4 January 46 BC 4 January 46 BC
Battle of Ruspina Battle of Ruspina
Optimates, Numidia
Battle
Ruspina Africa
Defeat ⁂
6 April 46 BC 6 April 46 BC
Battle of Thapsus Battle of Thapsus
Optimates, Numidia
Battle
Tunisia
Decisive Victory ⁂
17 March 45 BC 17 March 45 BC
Battle of Munda Battle of Munda
Pompeians
Battle
Andalusia Spain
Victory ⁂
· External links
Preceded byLucius AfraniusQuintus Caecilius Metellus Celer
Preceded byLucius AfraniusQuintus Caecilius Metellus Celer
Political offices
Preceded byLucius AfraniusQuintus Caecilius Metellus Celer
Political offices
Roman consul 59 BC With: Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus
Political offices
Succeeded byLucius Calpurnius Piso CaesoninusAulus Gabinius
Preceded byLucius Cornelius Lentulus CrusGaius Claudius Marcellus
Preceded byLucius Cornelius Lentulus CrusGaius Claudius Marcellus
Political offices
Preceded byLucius Cornelius Lentulus CrusGaius Claudius Marcellus
Political offices
Roman consul II 48 BC With: Publius Servilius Isauricus
Political offices
Succeeded byQuintus Fufius CalenusPublius Vatinius
Preceded byQuintus Fufius CalenusPublius Vatinius
Preceded byQuintus Fufius CalenusPublius Vatinius
Political offices
Preceded byQuintus Fufius CalenusPublius Vatinius
Political offices
Roman consul III 46 BC With: Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
Political offices
Succeeded byHimself without colleague
Preceded byHimselfMarcus Aemilius Lepidus
Preceded byHimselfMarcus Aemilius Lepidus
Political offices
Preceded byHimselfMarcus Aemilius Lepidus
Political offices
Roman consul IV January–September 45 BC
Political offices
Succeeded byHimselfMark Antony
Preceded byHimself without colleague
Preceded byHimself without colleague
Political offices
Preceded byHimself without colleague
Political offices
Roman consul V 44 BC With: Mark Antony
Political offices
Succeeded byPublius Cornelius Dolabella
Religious titles
Religious titles
Political offices
Religious titles
Preceded byQuintus Caecilius Metellus Pius
Preceded byQuintus Caecilius Metellus Pius
Political offices
Preceded byQuintus Caecilius Metellus Pius
Political offices
Pontifex maximus 63–44 BC
Political offices
Succeeded byMarcus Aemilius Lepidus
Political offices
Preceded byLucius AfraniusQuintus Caecilius Metellus Celer
Roman consul 59 BC With: Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus
Succeeded byLucius Calpurnius Piso CaesoninusAulus Gabinius
Preceded byLucius Cornelius Lentulus CrusGaius Claudius Marcellus
Roman consul II 48 BC With: Publius Servilius Isauricus
Succeeded byQuintus Fufius CalenusPublius Vatinius
Preceded byQuintus Fufius CalenusPublius Vatinius
Roman consul III 46 BC With: Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
Succeeded byHimself without colleague
Preceded byHimselfMarcus Aemilius Lepidus
Roman consul IV January–September 45 BC
Succeeded byHimselfMark Antony
Preceded byHimself without colleague
Roman consul V 44 BC With: Mark Antony
Succeeded byPublius Cornelius Dolabella
Religious titles
Preceded byQuintus Caecilius Metellus Pius
Pontifex maximus 63–44 BC
Succeeded byMarcus Aemilius Lepidus

References

  1. Pronounced /ˈsiːzər/ SEE-zər; Classical Latin: [ˈɡaːiʊs ˈjuːliʊs ˈkae̯sar].
  2. The last king and the second decemvirate were overthrown, not killed; Spurius Cassius and Manlius Capitolinus were execu
  3. Badian 2009, p. 16. All ancient sources place his birth in 100 BC. Some historians have argued against this; the "consen
    https://books.google.com/books?id=gzOXLGbIIYwC&pg=PA16
  4. All offices and years thereof from Broughton 1952, p. 574.
  5. Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict
    https://archive.org/details/battlesthatchang00tuck_956
  6. Badian 2009, p. 16, pursuant to Macr. Sat. 1.12.34, quoting a law by Mark Antony noting the date as the fourth day befor
  7. Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 32–33.
  8. Goldsworthy 2006, p. 35.
  9. Badian 2009, p. 14; Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 31–32. The consul of 157 BC was Sextus Caesar; the consuls of 91 and 90 were S
  10. Badian 2009, p. 15 dates the land commission to 103 per MRR 3.109; Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 33–34; Broughton 1952, p. 22, d
    http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=CIL+01%2C+00705&r_sortierung=Belegstelle
  11. Badian 2009, p. 16.
  12. Badian 2009, p. 16. Badian cites Suet. Iul., 1.2 arguing that Caesar was actually appointed; because a divorced man coul
  13. Goldsworthy 2006, p. 34.
  14. Les proscriptions de la Rome républicaine
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  15. Badian 2009, pp. 16–17, also rejecting claims that Caesar hid by bribing his pursuers: "this is an example of how the [C
  16. Plut. Caes., 1.4; Suet. Iul., 1.3.
  17. Badian 2009, p. 17, noting also that Sulla never killed any fellow patricians.
  18. Badian 2009, pp. 17–18.
  19. Suet. Iul., 2–3; Plut. Caes., 2–3; Dio, 43.20.
  20. Badian 2009, p. 17.
  21. Badian 2009, p. 18, citing Suet. Iul., 3.
  22. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 35.
  23. Alexander 1990, p. 71 (Trial 140) noting also that Tac. Dial., 34.7 wrongly places the trial in 79 BC; Alexander 1990, p
  24. Badian 2009, p. 18.
  25. Plutarch: Caesar
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  26. Badian 2009, p. 19, calling the story in Suet. Iul., 4.2 that Caesar called up auxiliaries and with them drove Mithridat
  27. Goldsworthy 2006, p. 78.
  28. Badian 2009, p. 19; Broughton 1952, pp. 114, 125; Vell. Pat., 2.43.1 (pontificate); Plut. Caes., 5.1 and Suet. Iul., 5 (
  29. Badian 2009, p. 19, citing Suet. Iul., 5.
  30. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 63.
  31. Badian 2009, pp. 19–20, also noting senatorial support for the pardons; Broughton 1952, pp. 126, 128, 130 n. 4, argues t
  32. Badian 2009, p. 20; Broughton 1952, p. 132. Badian 2009, p. 21 cites Suet. Iul., 6.1 for the incipit of Caesar's eulogy.
  33. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 43.
  34. Plut. Caes., 5.2–3.
  35. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 43–46.
  36. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 46, noting also that Plutarch omits this detail likely because it "would indeed have been embarra
  37. Gruen 1995, p. 79–80.
  38. Plebs and politics in the late Roman Republic
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  39. Broughton 1952, p. 158.
  40. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 46–47.
  41. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 48–49.
  42. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 64, 64 n. 129, noting that it is not clear which election was first; it is more likely, however,
  43. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 64–65, noting the victory of curule aedile Publius Licinius Crassus in 212 over senior consulars
  44. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 66, citing Suet. Iul., 13; Plut. Caes., 7.1–4; Dio, 37.37.1–3.
  45. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 67–68.
  46. Gruen 1995, pp. 80–81.
  47. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 69 n. 148.
  48. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 71.
  49. Alexander 1990, p. 110 (Trials 220–21).
  50. Gruen 1995, p. 80, citing Sall. Cat., 49.1–2. See also Suet. Iul., 17.
  51. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 72–77, placing it around 2.5 per cent. Gruen 1995, p. 429 n. 107 calls the view that Caesar was
  52. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 85–86, 90.
  53. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 92. Earlier sources being Cic. Cat., 4.8–10 and Sall. Cat., 51.42. Later sources include Plut. Ca
  54. Gruen 1995, pp. 281–82.
  55. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 102.
  56. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 102–04.
  57. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 107, citing Suet. Iul., 16. Dio reports a senatus consultum ultimum. Broughton 1952, p. 173, citi
  58. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 109.
  59. Plut. Caes., 10.9.
  60. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 110, adding in notes that the affair is usually interpreted as an attempt to destroy Clodius' car
  61. Drogula 2019, pp. 97–98.
  62. Oxford Classical Dictionary
    https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5337
  63. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 109–10.
  64. Broughton 1952, p. 180.
  65. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 110–11.
  66. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 111.
  67. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 112–13.
  68. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 114; Plut. Caes., 13; Suet. Iul., 18.2.
  69. Gruen 2009, p. 28.
  70. Gruen 2009, pp. 30–31.
  71. Gruen 2009, p. 28; Broughton 1952, pp. 158, 173. Bibulus was Caesar's colleague both in the curule aedileship and the pr
  72. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 119. "[A]n alliance which in modern times has come, quite misleadingly, to be called the 'First T
  73. Arctos: Acta Philological Fennica
    https://journal.fi/arctos/article/download/85987/44908
  74. Gruen 2009, p. 31.
  75. Gruen 2009, p. 31; Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 121–22, noting that the Senate had approved distribution of lands to Pompey's
  76. Gruen 2009, p. 32.
  77. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 125–29.
  78. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 130, 132.
  79. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 138.
  80. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 139–40.
  81. Wiseman 1994, p. 372.
  82. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 143 (Bibulus), 147 (dating to May).
  83. Wiseman 1994, p. 374.
  84. Drogula 2019, p. 137.
  85. Gruen 2009, p. 33, noting that the lex Vatinia was "no means unprecedented... or even controversial".
  86. Journal of Roman Studies
    https://www.jstor.org/stable/297143
  87. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 176–77; Gruen 2009, p. 34.
  88. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 143: Dio, 38.6.5 and Suet. Iul., 20.1 say around late January; Plut. Pomp., 48.5 says in early Ma
  89. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 142–44.
  90. Gruen 2009, p. 34, also citing Suet. Iul., 20.2 – the "consulship of Julius and Caesar" – as part of Catonian propaganda
  91. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 150–51, noting that Bibulus' voluntary seclusion "presented the image of the city dominated by o
  92. Gruen 2009, p. 34.
  93. Drogula 2019, pp. 138–39, noting Cato's support of Caesar's anti-corruption bill and the possibility that Cato gave inpu
  94. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 182–83, 182 n. 260, citing Suet. Iul., 23.1; pace Ramsey 2009, p. 38.
  95. Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 186–87.
  96. Goldsworthy 2006, p. 188–89.
  97. Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 189–90.
  98. Goldsworthy 2006, p. 204.
  99. Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 205, 208–10.
  100. Goldsworthy 2016, pp. 212–15.
  101. Goldsworthy 2016, p. 217.
  102. Goldsworthy 2016, p. 220.
  103. Boatwright 2004, p. 242.
  104. Goldsworthy 2016, p. 203.
  105. Goldsworthy 2016, pp. 221–22; Boatwright 2004, p. 242.
  106. Goldsworthy 2016, p. 222.
  107. Goldsworthy 2016, p. 223.
  108. Goldsworthy 2016, pp. 229–32, 233–38; Boatwright 2004, p. 242.
  109. Phoenix
    https://www.jstor.org/stable/1086053
  110. Ramsey 2009, pp. 37–38.
  111. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 194, noting Caesar's opposition – in early 58 BC – to Cicero's banishment. Caesar offered Cicero
  112. Ramsey 2009, p. 39.
  113. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 220, citing Gelzer, "this extraordinary honour... cut the ground from under the feet of those who
  114. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 196, 220; Ramsey 2009, pp. 39–40.
  115. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 220–21.
  116. Ramsey 2009, pp. 39–40.
  117. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 229.
  118. Ramsey 2009, pp. 41–42; Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 232.
  119. Ramsey 2009, p. 43; Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 232–33.
  120. Ramsey 2009, p. 44; Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 232–33.
  121. Gruen 1995, p. 451.
  122. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 238, citing Cic. Sest., 51, "hardly anyone has lost popularity among the citizens for winning war
  123. Ramsey 2009, p. 44.
  124. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 241ff, citing Caes. BGall., 5.26–52.
  125. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 272 n. 42: "Gruen.. and Raaflaub... have effectively disposed of the old idea, too heavily influe
  126. Ramsey 2009, p. 46: "Despite the fact that Pompey declined Caesar's later offer to form another marriage connection, the
  127. Gruen 1995, pp. 451–52, 453: "Julia's death came in the late summer of 54[;] if it opened a breach between Pompey and Ca
  128. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 243–44.
  129. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte
    https://www.jstor.org/stable/45019234
  130. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 247–48, 260, 265–66.
  131. Wiseman 1994, p. 412.
  132. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 258. See also Appendix 4 in the same book, analysing the conflict between Caesar and Pompey in te
  133. Wiseman 1994, p. 414, citing Caes. BGall., 8.2–16.
  134. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 270; Drogula 2019, p. 223.
  135. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 273.
  136. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 272, 276, 295 (identities of Cato's allies).
  137. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 291.
  138. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 292–93.
  139. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 297.
  140. Wiseman 1994, pp. 412–22, citing App. BCiv., 2.30–31 and Dio, 40.64.1–66.5.
  141. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 304.
  142. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 306.
  143. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 308.
  144. Boatwright 2004, p. 247; Meier 1995, pp. 1, 4; Mackay 2009, pp. 279–81; Wiseman 1994, p. 419.
  145. Ehrhardt 1995, p. 30. "Everyone knows that Caesar crossed the Rubicon because [he would have been...] put on trial, foun
  146. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte
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  147. Januar 49 v. Chr.: Vorgeschichte, Rechtslage, politische Aspekte
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  148. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 247 n. 234, citing Suet. Iul., 26.1; Plut. Pomp., 56.1–3.
  149. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 288. "Caesar feared that the only guarantee of his rights... to stand for election in absentia un
  150. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 309.
  151. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 320.
  152. SPQR: a history of ancient Rome
  153. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 322.
  154. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 331.
  155. Boatwright 2004, p. 246, citing Plut. Caes., 32.8. Rawson 1994a, p. 424 gives the same translation.
  156. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 336.
  157. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 340 (Caesar's pause), 342 (Caesar's offer), 343 (Pompey's counter-offer), 345 (negotiations coll
  158. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 347.
  159. Rawson 1994a, pp. 424–25, 427. "[Abandoning Italy] was probably justified from a military point of view ... but Cicero w
  160. Rawson 1994a, p. 430, citing: Cic. Att., 10.4.8; Dio, 41.15–16; App. BCiv., 2.41.
  161. Ehrhardt 1995, p. 36. Caesar's "concern for the 'rights of tribunes' was too obvious a sham... what [he] actually though
  162. Boatwright 2004, p. 252.
  163. Rawson 1994a, p. 431, citing Caes. BCiv., 2.17–20.
  164. Rawson 1994a, p. 431. He also passed laws removing civil disabilities from the descendants of those proscribed by Sulla
  165. Wilson 2021, p. 309, citing, among others, Caes. BCiv., 3.1.1; Plut. Caes., 37.1–2; App. BCiv., 2.48; Dio, 41.36.1–4. He
  166. Rawson 1994a, p. 432; Boatwright 2004, p. 252.
  167. Rawson 1994a, p. 433; Boatwright 2004, pp. 252–53; Plut. Caes., 42–45.
  168. Cleopatra: a biography
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  169. Papers of the British School at Rome
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  170. Rawson 1994a, pp. 433–34, noting that both children were left under Roman protection under their father's will. Boatwrig
  171. Wilson 2021, p. 309, citing Plut. Caes., 51.1 and Dio, 42.17.1–22.2.
  172. Rawson 1994a, p. 435, citing Dio, 42.18.
  173. Rawson 1994a, p. 434. At the battle, Ptolemy drowned. Boatwright 2004, p. 253.
  174. Rawson 1994a, p. 434; Boatwright 2004, p. 253.
  175. Rawson 1994a, p. 434, citing Plut. Caes., 50.2 and Suet. Iul., 35.2, 37.2.
  176. Rawson 1994a, p. 435, noting "an epic march through the desert from Cyrenaica to the province of Africa", citing Lucan P
  177. Rawson 1994a, p. 435. Rawson also notes claims – Dio, 42.56.4 – that the republicans were planning a naval invasion of I
  178. Rawson 1994a, p. 435 n. 58, citing Suet. Iul., 70.
  179. Broughton 1952, p. 286, noting the two consuls (Quintus Fufius and Publius Vatinius) were elected in September per Dio,
  180. Rawson 1994a, p. 435.
  181. Rawson 1994a, pp. 435–36.
  182. Rawson 1994a, p. 436, citing Plut. Cat. Min., 58–70; see also Plut. Caes., 52–54.
  183. Rawson 1994a, p. 436; Boatwright 2004, p. 253.
  184. Rawson 1994a, p. 436.
  185. Rawson 1994a, p. 436, citing App. BCiv., 2.101–2.
  186. Rawson 1994a, pp. 436–37.
  187. Rawson 1994a, p. 436, citing Plut. Caes., 56.
  188. Rawson 1994a, p. 437.
  189. Rawson 1994a, p. 436, noting that Sextus fomented a momentary rebellion and that Quintus Caecilius Bassus led a revolt i
  190. Rawson 1994a, pp. 437–38; Boatwright 2004, pp. 253–54.
  191. Crawford 1974, 480/6 (= pp. 487–89, 494).
  192. Wilson 2021, p. 309.
  193. Badian 2012; Broughton 1986, pp. 107–8.
  194. Wilson 2021, pp. 311–13. "In the view of the ancient historians and biographers self-tasked with assessing Caesar's rule
  195. See Wilson 2021, p. 313 n. 46. Meier 1995, pp. 474–75 notes that senators may have wanted to curry favour or otherwise,
  196. Wilson 2021, p. 314.
  197. From the Founding of the City
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  198. Wilson 2021, pp. 314–15.
  199. The monetary system of the Romans
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  200. Coinage and identity in the Roman provinces
  201. Meier 1995, pp. 473–74.
  202. Meier 1995, p. 448. "He acted as he saw fit. Others had no right even to be informed of his intentions... Rome still had
  203. Badian 2012; Meier 1995, pp. 447–48.
  204. Badian 2012.
  205. Similarly, Meier 1995, p. 470, "However restlessly active [Caesar] was, we still hear of nothing that could be construed
  206. Wilson 2021, p. 318; Badian 2012; Meier 1995, p. 447.
  207. Badian 2012 for administration and colonial activity. Wilson 2021, p. 318, noting Suetonius viewing the expansion of the
  208. Meier 1995, p. 464.
  209. Wilson 2021, p. 318; Lintott 1999, p. 160.
  210. Wilson 2021, p. 318.
  211. Meier 1995, p. 447.
  212. Wilson 2021, pp. 319, 321.
  213. Wilson 2021, p. 319.
  214. Wilson 2021, pp. 321–22.
  215. Meier 1995, pp. 447–49.
  216. Meier 1995, p. 462.
  217. Wilson 2021, p. 322 n. 92 on favours for clients. Wilson 2021, p. 322 n. 94, noting Suet. Iul., 54.1–3 reporting on Caes
  218. Crawford 1974, 480/10 (= pp. 487–90, 494).
  219. Roman republican coinage
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  220. Meier 1995, p. 476.
  221. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 522 (noting attempts to restore the tribunes to office after Caesar's death); Tempest 2017, p. 81
  222. Meier 1995, pp. 474, 476.
  223. Gnomon
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  224. Meier 1995, pp. 476–77.
  225. Meier 1995, p. 479.
  226. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 561–62.
  227. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 556.
  228. Meier 1995, p. 480.
  229. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 556, noting Basilus and Cimber as praetors in 45 and Casca as plebeian tribune in 44 or 43.
  230. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 560.
  231. Tempest 2017, p. 93; Meier 1995, p. 465 ("their dignity would have been spurious"); Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 547–48, 549–
  232. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 553.
  233. Tempest 2017, p. 41; Meier 1995, pp. 480–81.
  234. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 524–25 gives a number of examples: Plut. Brut., 9.6: "If only you lived now, Brutus", on the Cap
  235. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 523, 526–27, 528 (calling the belief in modern scholarship that Caesar remained "the darling of
  236. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 528 (debts), 529 (lethal force, corn dole, collegia), 530 (juries, elections).
  237. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 548 (the two candidates for the consulship of 43 BC were the only two men allowed to stand), 550
  238. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 575.
  239. Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 318, 573–75.
  240. Tempest 2017, pp. 95–99.
  241. Meier 1995, p. 485.
  242. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 563.
  243. Tempest 2017, pp. 99–100.
  244. Tempest 2017, p. 100.
  245. Meier 1995, pp. 485–86, noting three: Caesar felt unwell and had to be persuaded by a conspirator to attend the Senate,
  246. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 571; Meier 1995, p. 485; Suet. Iul., 80.4; App. BCiv., 2.115.
  247. Tempest 2017, p. 101–3, citing Suet. Iul., 81–82.
  248. Tempest 2017, p. 3–4, 261 n. 1; Meier 1995, p. 486 (reporting 23 wounds).
  249. Tempest 2017, p. 261 n. 1 cites all ancient accounts: Nic. Dam., 58–106; Plut. Caes., 60–68; Plut. Brut., 8–20; Suet. Iu
  250. Mackay 2009, p. 316.
  251. Rawson 1994b, p. 469. "Antony pointed out that logically, if Caesar was a tyrant, his body should be thrown into the Tib
  252. The Classical Quarterly
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  253. Rawson 1994b, p. 470.
  254. A new topographical dictionary of ancient Rome
  255. Mackay 2009, pp. 318–19; Rawson 1994b, p. 471.
  256. Mackay 2009, pp. 315–16.
  257. Boatwright 2004, pp. 270–72.
  258. Mackay 2009, p. 332.
  259. Mackay 2009, p. 334. Caesar's heir then took the style divi filius, meaning "son of the deified one".
  260. Boatwright 2004, p. 273.
  261. Mackay 2009, p. 335; Boatwright 2004, p. 274.
  262. Meier 1995, pp. 494, 496.
  263. Plut. Caes., 17, 45, 60; Suet. Iul., 45.
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  274. Suet. Iul., 45 "Circa corporis... laureae coronae perpetuo gestandae."
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  282. Suet. Iul., 49.
  283. Suet. Iul., 49; Dio, 43.20.
  284. Catullus, Carmina 29 Archived 20 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine, 57 Archived 4 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine
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  294. La Stampa
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  295. Il Messaggero
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  296. Weber 2008, p. 34.
  297. History Compass
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  298. Unpatriotic History of the Second World War
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  299. Canfora 2006, pp. 12–13
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