Topzle Topzle

Incarceration in the United States

Updated: Wikipedia source

Incarceration in the United States

Incarceration in the United States is one of the primary means of punishment for crime in the United States. In 2021, over five million people were under supervision by the criminal justice system, with nearly two million people incarcerated in state or federal prisons and local jails. The United States has the largest known prison population in the world. It has 5% of the world's population while having 20% of the world's incarcerated persons. China, with more than four times more inhabitants, has fewer persons in prison. Prison populations grew dramatically beginning in the 1970s, but began a decline around 2009, dropping 25% by year-end 2021. Drug offenses account for the incarceration of about 1 in 5 people in U.S. prisons. Violent offenses account for over 3 in 5 people (62%) in state prisons. Property offenses account for the incarceration of about 1 in 7 people (14%) in state prisons. The United States maintains a higher incarceration rate than most developed countries. According to the World Prison Brief on May 7, 2023, the United States has the sixth highest incarceration rate in the world, at 531 people per 100,000. Expenses related to prison, parole, and probation operations have an annual estimated cost of around $81 billion. Court costs, bail bond fees, and prison phone fees amounted to another $38 billion in costs annually. Since reaching its peak level of imprisonment in 2009, the U.S. has averaged a rate of decarceration of 2.3% per year. This figure includes the anomalous 14.1% drop in 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. There is significant variation among state prison population declines. Connecticut, New Jersey, and New York have reduced their prison populations by over 50% since reaching their peak levels. Twenty-five states have reduced their prison populations by 25% since reaching their peaks. The federal prison population downsized 27% relative to its peak in 2011. There was a 2% decrease in the number of persons sentenced to more than 1 year under the jurisdiction of the Federal Bureau of Prisons from 2022 to 2023. Although debtor's prisons no longer exist in the United States, residents of some U.S. states can still be incarcerated for unpaid court fines and assessments as of 2016. The Vera Institute of Justice reported in 2015 that the majority of those incarcerated in local and county jails are there for minor violations and have been jailed for longer periods of time over the past 30 years because they are unable to pay court-imposed costs.

Tables

US incarceration count, and rate per 100,000 population. Jails, state prisons, federal prisons.[28]
1940
1940
Year
1940
Count
264,834
Rate
201
1950
1950
Year
1950
Count
264,620
Rate
176
1960
1960
Year
1960
Count
346,015
Rate
193
1970
1970
Year
1970
Count
328,020
Rate
161
1980
1980
Year
1980
Count
503,586
Rate
220
1985
1985
Year
1985
Count
744,208
Rate
311
1990
1990
Year
1990
Count
1,148,702
Rate
457
1995
1995
Year
1995
Count
1,585,586
Rate
592
2000
2000
Year
2000
Count
1,937,482
Rate
683
2002
2002
Year
2002
Count
2,033,022
Rate
703
2004
2004
Year
2004
Count
2,135,335
Rate
725
2006
2006
Year
2006
Count
2,258,792
Rate
752
2008
2008
Year
2008
Count
2,307,504
Rate
755
2010
2010
Year
2010
Count
2,270,142
Rate
731
2012
2012
Year
2012
Count
2,228,424
Rate
707
2014
2014
Year
2014
Count
2,217,947
Rate
693
2016
2016
Year
2016
Count
2,157,800
Rate
666
2018
2018
Year
2018
Count
2,102,400
Rate
642
2020
2020
Year
2020
Count
1,675,400
Rate
505
2021
2021
Year
2021
Count
1,767,200
Rate
531
Year
Count
Rate
1940
264,834
201
1950
264,620
176
1960
346,015
193
1970
328,020
161
1980
503,586
220
1985
744,208
311
1990
1,148,702
457
1995
1,585,586
592
2000
1,937,482
683
2002
2,033,022
703
2004
2,135,335
725
2006
2,258,792
752
2008
2,307,504
755
2010
2,270,142
731
2012
2,228,424
707
2014
2,217,947
693
2016
2,157,800
666
2018
2,102,400
642
2020
1,675,400
505
2021
1,767,200
531
· Demographics › Race and ethnicity
Race, ethnicity
Race, ethnicity
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
Race, ethnicity
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
% of US population
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
% of incarcerated population
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
Incarceration rate (per 100,000)
White (non-Hispanic)
White (non-Hispanic)
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
White (non-Hispanic)
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
59
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
31
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
181
Hispanic
Hispanic
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
Hispanic
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
19
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
24
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
434
Black
Black
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
Black
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
14
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
32
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
901
2021. People incarcerated in state or federal prisons by race and ethnicity.
Race, ethnicity
% of US population
% of incarcerated population
Incarceration rate (per 100,000)
White (non-Hispanic)
59
31
181
Hispanic
19
24
434
Black
14
32
901
· Demographics › Gender
Race orethnicity
Race orethnicity
2010 adult incarceration ratesby race, ethnicity, and sexper 100,000 adult US residents
Race orethnicity
2010 adult incarceration ratesby race, ethnicity, and sexper 100,000 adult US residents
Male
2010 adult incarceration ratesby race, ethnicity, and sexper 100,000 adult US residents
Female
White
White
2010 adult incarceration ratesby race, ethnicity, and sexper 100,000 adult US residents
White
2010 adult incarceration ratesby race, ethnicity, and sexper 100,000 adult US residents
678
2010 adult incarceration ratesby race, ethnicity, and sexper 100,000 adult US residents
91
Black
Black
2010 adult incarceration ratesby race, ethnicity, and sexper 100,000 adult US residents
Black
2010 adult incarceration ratesby race, ethnicity, and sexper 100,000 adult US residents
4,347
2010 adult incarceration ratesby race, ethnicity, and sexper 100,000 adult US residents
260
Hispanic
Hispanic
2010 adult incarceration ratesby race, ethnicity, and sexper 100,000 adult US residents
Hispanic
2010 adult incarceration ratesby race, ethnicity, and sexper 100,000 adult US residents
1,775
2010 adult incarceration ratesby race, ethnicity, and sexper 100,000 adult US residents
133
2010 adult incarceration ratesby race, ethnicity, and sexper 100,000 adult US residents
Race orethnicity
Male
Female
White
678
91
Black
4,347
260
Hispanic
1,775
133
· Demographics › Youth
Year
Year
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
Year
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
Male
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
Female
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
Total
1997
1997
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
1997
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
90,771
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
14,284
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
105,055
1999
1999
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
1999
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
92,985
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
14,508
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
107,493
2001
2001
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
2001
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
89,115
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
15,104
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
104,219
2003
2003
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
2003
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
81,975
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
14,556
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
96,531
2006
2006
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
2006
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
78,998
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
13,723
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
92,721
2007
2007
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
2007
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
75,017
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
11,797
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
86,814
2010
2010
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
2010
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
61,359
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
9,434
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
70,793
2011
2011
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
2011
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
53,079
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
8,344
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
61,423
2013
2013
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
2013
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
46,421
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
7,727
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
54,148
2015
2015
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
2015
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
40,750
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
7,293
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
48,043
Juveniles in residentialplacement, 1997–2015. US
Year
Male
Female
Total
1997
90,771
14,284
105,055
1999
92,985
14,508
107,493
2001
89,115
15,104
104,219
2003
81,975
14,556
96,531
2006
78,998
13,723
92,721
2007
75,017
11,797
86,814
2010
61,359
9,434
70,793
2011
53,079
8,344
61,423
2013
46,421
7,727
54,148
2015
40,750
7,293
48,043

References

  1. Jacob Kang-Brown, Chase Montagnet, and Jasmine Heiss. People in Jail and Prison in Spring 2021. New York: Vera Institute
    https://www.vera.org/publications/people-in-jail-and-prison-in-spring-2021
  2. Bureau of Justice Statistics
    https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/correctional-populations-united-states-2021-statistical-tables
  3. Prison Policy Initiative
    https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/correctionalcontrol2023.html
  4. The New York Times
    https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/25/us/us-mass-incarceration-rate.html
  5. Highest to Lowest. World Prison Brief (WPB). Use the dropdown menu to choose lists of countries by region or the whole w
    http://www.prisonstudies.org/highest-to-lowest
  6. The Sentencing Project
    https://www.sentencingproject.org/policy-brief/ending-50-years-of-mass-incarceration-urgent-reform-needed-to-protect-future-generations/
  7. U.S. Department of Justice
    https://bjs.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh236/files/media/document/p21st.pdf
  8. Brennan Center of Justice
    https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/analysis-opinion/united-states-very-slowly-reducing-incarceration
  9. Equal Justice Initiative
    https://eji.org/news/mass-incarceration-costs-182-billion-annually
  10. Bureau of Justice Statistics
    https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/prisoners-1925-81
  11. Bureau of Justice Statistics
    https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/list
  12. www.bop.gov
    https://www.bop.gov/about/statistics/population_statistics.jsp;
  13. bjs.ojp.gov
    https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/prisons-report-series-preliminary-data-release-2023
  14. The Tampa Bay Times
    https://web.archive.org/web/20100706150424/http://www.tampabay.com/opinion/editorials/article991963.ece
  15. Find Law.com
    http://codes.lp.findlaw.com/cacode/PEN/3/2/8/1/s1205
  16. Knafo, Saki (February 12, 2014). The U.S. Is Locking People Up For Being Poor. The Huffington Post. Retrieved February 1
    https://huffingtonpost.com/2014/02/12/debtors-prisons-report_n_4768320.html
  17. Politics & Gender
    https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/confining-social-insecurity-neoliberalism-and-the-rise-of-the-21-st-century-debtors-prison(dc3a6e28-2de2-4108-8e96-ee92ffa73013).html
  18. Timothy Williams (February 11, 2015). Jails Have Become Warehouses for the Poor, Ill and Addicted, a Report Says. The Ne
    https://mobile.nytimes.com/2015/02/11/us/jails-have-become-warehouses-for-the-poor-ill-and-addicted-a-report-says.html
  19. yalebooks.yale.edu
    https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300042979/rise-penitentiary
  20. With Liberty for Some: 500 Years of Imprisonment in America
    https://books.google.com/books?id=M_DQTqbKcIgC
  21. With Liberty for Some: 500 Years of Imprisonment in America
    https://books.google.com/books?id=M_DQTqbKcIgC
  22. Valerie Jenness, UCI Professor, Criminology Department
    https://web.archive.org/web/20160911072232/https://valeriejenness.com/history-of-the-united-states-prison-system/
  23. The Prison Journal
    https://doi.org/10.1177%2F003288557005000103
  24. Memorial to the Legislature of Massachusetts 1843
    https://archive.org/stream/memorialtolegisl00dixd#page/n4/mode/1up
  25. Journal of Correctional Education
    https://www.jstor.org/stable/41970648
  26. Journal of Law and Political Economy
    https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1q61869b
  27. Cosa Nostra: A History of the Sicilian Mafia
  28. United States of America. World Prison Brief.
    https://www.prisonstudies.org/country/united-states-america
  29. "Richard Nixon: Special Message to the Congress on Drug Abuse Prevention and Control"
    https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/240245
  30. The Atlantic
    https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/03/the-war-on-drugs-how-president-nixon-tied-addiction-to-crime/254319/
  31. Making Crime Pay: Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics
  32. Hinton, Elizabeth. "From the War on Crime to the War on Drugs". From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime: the Making
  33. Nation Behind Bars: A Human Rights Solution. Human Rights Watch, May 2014. Retrieved May 8, 2014.
    https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/related_material/2014_US_Nation_Behind_Bars_0.pdf
  34. Prison Policy Initiative
    https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2023.html
  35. www.bop.gov
    https://www.bop.gov/inmates/fsa/overview.jsp
  36. Forbes
    https://www.forbes.com/sites/walterpavlo/2025/06/30/exclusive-interview-with-bureau-of-prisons-director-william-marshall/
  37. Forbes
    https://www.forbes.com/sites/walterpavlo/2025/05/28/federal-bureau-of-prisons-to-expand-home-confinement/
  38. www.census.gov
    https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/RHI725222#RHI725222
  39. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences
    http://www.nap.edu/catalog/18613
  40. Reducing Racial Inequality in Crime and Justice: Science, Practice, and Policy
    https://www.nap.edu/catalog/26705
  41. counciloncj.foleon.com
    https://counciloncj.foleon.com/reports/racial-disparities/national-trends
  42. Bureau of Justice Statistics
    https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/list
  43. Correctional Populations in the United States, 2010[permanent dead link] (NCJ 236319). By Lauren E. Glaze, BJS Statistic
    https://www.bjs.gov/indexm.cfm?iid=2237&ty=pbdetail
  44. Correctional Populations in the United States, 2013 (NCJ 248479). Published December 2014 by U.S. Bureau of Justice Stat
    https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=5177
  45. Women in Prison: Gender and Social Control
    https://books.google.com/books?id=RyBF1WXXmckC&pg=PR7
  46. Women in Prison: A Reference Handbook
    https://books.google.com/books?id=DpSjVQ0u9zwC&pg=PA1
  47. ACLU
    https://www.aclu.org/issues/womens-rights/women-and-criminal-justice/how-incarcerating-women-fuels-our-mass-incarceration
  48. Are Prisons Obsolete?
  49. "Women and Girls in Corrections"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20230827191109/https://www.jrsa.org/pubs/factsheets/jrsa-factsheet-women-girls-in-corrections.pdf
  50. The Sentencing Project
    https://www.sentencingproject.org/fact-sheet/incarcerated-women-and-girls/
  51. Washington Post
    https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/01/24/white-women-are-going-to-prison-at-a-higher-rate-than-ever-before/
  52. Washington Post
    https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2023/07/12/good-news-black-incarceration-rate-declines/
  53. Gross, Kali Nicole. "African American women, mass incarceration, and the politics of protection." The Journal of America
  54. Potter, Hillary. Battle cries: Black women and intimate partner abuse. NYU Press, 2008.
  55. The Journal of Law, Economics & Policy
  56. The Huffington Post
    https://huffingtonpost.com/2012/09/11/men-women-prison-sentence-length-gender-gap_n_1874742.html
  57. Berkeley Journal of Criminal Law
    https://lawcat.berkeley.edu/record/1120434
  58. Sickmund, M., Sladky, T.J., Kang, W., & Puzzanchera, C.. "Easy Access to the Census of Juveniles in Residential Placemen
    https://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/ezacjrp/
  59. Ed Pilkington (March 13, 2014). US criticised by UN for human rights failings on NSA, guns and drones. The Guardian. Ret
    https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/13/us-un-human-rights-abuses-nsa-drones
  60. Natasja Sheriff (March 9, 2015). UN expert slams US as only nation to imprison kids for life without parole. Al Jazeera
    http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/3/9/un-expert-slams-us-as-only-nation-to-sentence-kids-to-life-without-parole.html
  61. Chris Kirkham (October 22, 2013). Prisoners of Profit: Private Prison Empire Rises Despite Startling Record Of Juvenile
    http://projects.huffingtonpost.com/prisoners-of-profit?ncid=edlinkusaolp00000009
  62. Case, Anne C., and Lawrence F. Katz. The company you keep: The effects of family and neighborhood on disadvantaged youth
  63. www.prisonpolicy.org
    https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/youth2018.html
  64. "Education Or Incarceration: Zero Tolerance Policies And The School To Prison Pipeline"
    https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ870076.pdf
  65. Sarah Biehl, The School-to-Prison Pipeline, 28 OHIO LAWYER, Jan.–Feb. 2014,
  66. David M. Pedersen, Zero-Tolerance Policies, in SCHOOL VIOLENCE: FROM DISCIPLINE TO DUE PROCESS 48 (James C. Hanks ed., 2
  67. Ralph M. Gerstein & Lois A. Gerstein Education Law: An Essential Guide for Attorneys, Teachers, Administrators, Parents
  68. U.S. Dep't of Educ. Office for Civil Rights, School Climate and Discipline, http://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/school-di
    http://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/school-discipline/index.html
  69. Catherine Y. Kim, Policing School Discipline, 77 BROOK. L. REV. 861, 901–02 (2012); Moll & Simmons, supra note 22, at 7;
    http://safequalityschools.org/pages/clayton-county-ga
  70. "Education Or Incarceration: Zero Tolerance Policies And The School To Prison Pipeline"
    http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ870076.pdf
  71. Koon, Danfeng Soto-Vigil. "Exclusionary School Discipline: An Issue Brief and the Review of Literature." The Chief Justi
  72. "Disproportionality in school discipline: An assessment of trends in Maryland, 2009–12"
    http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544770.pdf
  73. Washington Post
    https://web.archive.org/web/20190902040530/https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/racial-disparities-in-school-discipline-are-growing-federal-data-shows/2018/04/24/67b5d2b8-47e4-11e8-827e-190efaf1f1ee_story.html?noredirect=on
  74. The Washington Post
    https://web.archive.org/web/20190902040530/https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/racial-disparities-in-school-discipline-are-growing-federal-data-shows/2018/04/24/67b5d2b8-47e4-11e8-827e-190efaf1f1ee_story.html?noredirect=on
  75. National Association of Social Workers, Ohio Chapter
    https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.naswoh.org/resource/resmgr/Day_2/ChrisM.pdf
  76. "Disproportionate impact of K-12 school suspension and expulsion on black students in southern states"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20171021170658/https://www.gse.upenn.edu/equity/sites/gse.upenn.edu.equity/files/publications/Smith_Harper_Report.pdf
  77. Feld, Barry C. (1999). "Bad Kids: Race and the Transformation of the Juvenile Court".
  78. School Suspensions: Are they helping children?
  79. Race in America
  80. USA Today
    https://web.archive.org/web/20111025084423/http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-09-29-aging-inmates_N.htm?csp=34
  81. Aging Prisoners: Crisis in American Corrections
  82. "Elderly Inmate Population Soared 1,300 Percent Since 1980s: Report"
    https://huffingtonpost.com/2012/06/13/elderly-inmate-population-soars_n_1594793.html
  83. Standing With LGBT Prisoners: An Advocate's Guide to Ending Abuse and Combating Imprisonment
    http://transequality.org/sites/default/files/docs/resources/JailPrisons_Resource_FINAL.pdf
  84. The Huffington Post
    https://huffingtonpost.com/harper-jean-tobin/putting-prisons-on-the-lg_b_5065219.html
  85. Punishment & Society
    https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14624745211017818
  86. "It's War In Here": A Report on the Treatment of Transgender and Intersex People in New York State Men's Prisons
    https://web.archive.org/web/20181001193133/https://srlp.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/WarinHere042007.pdf
  87. "Corrupting Justice: A Primer for LGBT Communities on Racism, Violence, Human Degradation & the Prison Industrial Complex"
    http://www.prisonpolicy.org/scans/corrupting-justice.pdf
  88. Sexual Victimization in Prisons and Jails Reported by Inmates, 2011–12
    https://web.archive.org/web/20180213194214/http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=4654
  89. Huffington Post
    https://huffingtonpost.com/2013/02/04/mental-illness-prisons-jails-inmates_n_2610062.html
  90. nicic.gov
    https://web.archive.org/web/20150217160734/http://nicic.gov/mentalillness
  91. The Seattle Times
    https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/us-jails-struggle-with-role-as-makeshift-asylums/
  92. Law and Human Behavior
    https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10979-010-9223-7
  93. Mental Health Problems of Prison and Jail Inmates
    https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/mhppji.pdf
  94. Mental Illness, Human Rights, and US Prisons: Human Rights Watch Statement for the Record Senate Judiciary Committee Subcommittee on Human Rights and the Law
    https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/related_material/Human%20Rights%20Watch%20Statement%20for%20the%20Record_9_22_09.pdf
  95. Marisa Taylor (May 12, 2015). Report: Mentally ill inmates are routinely abused by corrections officers. Al Jazeera Amer
    http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/5/12/mentally-ill-inmates-often-physically-abused.html
  96. Law and Human Behavior
    http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/lhb-0000075.pdf
  97. www.tac.org
    https://www.tac.org/reports_publications/serious-mental-illness-prevalence-in-jails-and-prisons/
  98. www.ice.gov
    https://www.ice.gov/features/ERO-2018
  99. "Transfer Of State Prisoners." United States Department of Justice. Retrieved on April 14, 2016.
    https://www.justice.gov/criminal-oeo/transfer-state-prisoners
  100. "How The Program Works." United States Department of Justice. Retrieved on April 14, 2016.
    https://www.justice.gov/criminal-oeo/how-program-works
  101. Contemporary Sociology
    https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0094306110404514d
  102. Tom Hall (February 13, 2015).Study says US jails have become "massive warehouses" for the poor. World Socialist Web Site
    http://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2015/02/13/pris-f13.html
  103. Alston, Philp
    https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2017/12/statement-visit-usa-professor-philip-alston-united-nations-special-rapporteur
  104. Poverty, by America
  105. "The Meaning of "Life": Long Prison Sentences in Context"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20100710053406/http://www.sentencingproject.org/doc/publications/inc_meaningoflife.pdf
  106. FBI.gov
    https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2016-crime-statistics-released
  107. Prison Policy Initiative
    https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2016.html
  108. "Prisoners in 2009"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20111027075245/http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/p09.pdf
  109. Profile of Jail Inmates, 2002 Archived December 8, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. By Doris J. James. July 18, 2004. NCJ 2
    https://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=1118
  110. The Week
    https://theweek.com/articles/455520/congresss-poor-record-more
  111. Wall Street Journal
    https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-better-approach-to-violent-crime-1485536313
  112. "Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1971"
    https://www.unodc.org/pdf/convention_1971_en.pdf
  113. Hospital Pharmacy
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3839489
  114. www.hrw.org
    https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2000/usa/Rcedrg00-05.htm
  115. "Incarcerated America" Human Rights Watch (April 2003)
    https://www.hrw.org/legacy/backgrounder/usa/incarceration/
  116. United States Crime Rates 1960–2009. Source: FBI, Uniform Crime Reports.
    http://www.disastercenter.com/crime/uscrime.htm
  117. U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics: "Prisoners in 2012 Trends in Admissions and Releases, 1991–2012
    https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/p12tar9112.pdf
  118. Pretrial Justice Institute
    https://web.archive.org/web/20200509190247/https://www.pretrial.org/get-involved/learn-more/why-we-need-pretrial-reform/
  119. "Jail Inmates in 2016"
    https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/ji16.pdf
  120. www.prisonstudies.org
    https://www.prisonstudies.org/country/united-states-america
  121. Center for American Progress
    https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/criminal-justice/reports/2020/03/16/481543/ending-cash-bail/
  122. www.ncsl.org
    https://web.archive.org/web/20170823063423/http://www.ncsl.org:80/research/civil-and-criminal-justice/bail-or-jail.aspx
  123. Bureau of Justice Statistics
    https://web.archive.org/web/20210425104103/https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/press/ji18pr.pdf
  124. DOJ
    https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/press/ji18pr.pdf
  125. Forbes
    https://www.forbes.com/sites/collegeprose/2013/03/25/college-behind-bars-how-educating-prisoners-pays-off/
  126. Social Justice Funders Opportunity Brief
    https://heller.brandeis.edu/sillerman/pdfs/opportunity-briefs/post-secondary-education-people-in-prison.pdf
  127. Sociological Forum
    https://www.jstor.org/stable/43654408
  128. Journal of Student Financial Aid
    https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1344311
  129. Evaluating the Effectiveness of Correctional Education: A Meta-Analysis of Programs That Provide Education to Incarcerated Adults
    https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR266.html
  130. "Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 1994"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20111214044810/http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/rpr94.pdf
  131. Bureau of Justice Statistics
    https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/rprts05p0510.pdf
  132. The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States
    https://www.routledge.com/The-Routledge-Handbook-of-Poverty-in-the-United-States/Haymes-Vidal-de-Haymes-Miller/p/book/9780415673440
  133. Gefangenenraten im internationalen und nationalen Vergleich (Prison rates international comparison) Archived July 14, 20
    https://rsf.uni-greifswald.de/fileadmin/uni-greifswald/fakultaet/rsf/lehrstuehle/ls-harrendorf/Seiten_aus_BewHi_2-16_Inhalt.pdf
  134. American Exception. Inmate Count in US Dwarfs Other Nations'. New York Times. April 22, 2008. Page 1, Section A, Front P
    http://www.mapinc.org/drugnews/v08/n417/a04.html
  135. Walmsley, Roy (February 2, 2016). World Prison Population List (11th edition) (PDF). From the Research & Publications pa
    http://www.prisonstudies.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/world_prison_population_list_11th_edition_0.pdf
  136. Correctional Populations in the United States, 2015. By Danielle Kaeble and Lauren Glaze, BJS Statisticians. Dec. 2016.
    https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=5870
  137. Population Clock. U.S. Census Bureau. 321,032,786 people in the US on June 30, 2015.
    https://www.census.gov/popclock
  138. The World Population Prospects: 2015 Revision. July 29, 2015, article. From United Nations Department of Economic and So
    http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/publications/world-population-prospects-2015-revision.html
  139. Canada. World Prison Brief.
    http://www.prisonstudies.org/country/canada
  140. United Kingdom: England & Wales. World Prison Brief.
    http://www.prisonstudies.org/country/united-kingdom-england-wales
  141. Australia. World Prison Brief.
    http://www.prisonstudies.org/country/australia
  142. Ireland Irish Penal Reform Trust.
    https://www.iprt.ie/prison-facts-2
  143. Spain. World Prison Brief.
    http://www.prisonstudies.org/country/spain
  144. Greece. World Prison Brief.
    http://www.prisonstudies.org/country/greece
  145. Norway. World Prison Brief.
    http://www.prisonstudies.org/country/norway
  146. Netherlands. World Prison Brief.
    http://www.prisonstudies.org/country/netherlands
  147. Japan. World Prison Brief.
    http://www.prisonstudies.org/country/japan
  148. "States of Incarceration: The Global Context 2021"
    https://www.prisonpolicy.org/global/2021.html
  149. The Times-Picayune
    https://web.archive.org/web/20150303130905/http://www.nola.com/crime/index.ssf/2012/05/louisiana_is_the_worlds_prison.html
  150. Liptak, Adam (February 28, 2008). 1 in 100 U.S. Adults Behind Bars, New Study Says. New York Times.
    https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/28/us/28cnd-prison.html
  151. The Russian economy: from Lenin to Putin. By Steven Rosefielde
    https://books.google.com/books?id=L4s1H9v2yOwC&q=gulag+population&pg=PA95
  152. Gulag: a history. By Anne Applebaum
    https://books.google.com/books?id=8fIfmxAs_T0C&q=gulag+total+population&pg=PA446
  153. Gopnik, Adam (January 30, 2012). The Caging of America. The New Yorker.
    https://newyorker.com/arts/critics/atlarge/2012/01/30/120130crat_atlarge_gopnik?currentPage=all
  154. The Annie E. Casey Foundation
    https://www.aecf.org/blog/what-is-juvenile-detention
  155. lao.ca.gov
    https://lao.ca.gov/Publications/Report/4023
  156. Routledge handbook of corrections in the United States
  157. CNN
    https://www.cnn.com/2015/06/25/us/dzhokhar-tsarnaev-supermax-prison/index.html
  158. "My Life in the Supermax"
    https://www.themarshallproject.org/2016/01/08/my-life-in-the-supermax
  159. "What Do Security Levels Means"
    https://www.angelfire.com/journal/injustice/Security.html
  160. Maximum-Security Prisons Retrieved 15 May 2024
    https://www.sweetstudy.com/note-bank/southern-new-hampshire-university/cj-210-the-united-states-correctional-system/cj210module4notes-docx
  161. Bureau of Justice Statistics
    https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/correctional-populations-united-states-2016
  162. Medium-Security Prisons Retrieved 15 May 2024
    https://www.sweetstudy.com/note-bank/southern-new-hampshire-university/cj-210-the-united-states-correctional-system/cj210module4notes-docx
  163. Minimum Security Prisons Retrieved 15 May 2024
    https://www.sweetstudy.com/note-bank/southern-new-hampshire-university/cj-210-the-united-states-correctional-system/cj210module4notes-docx
  164. diZerega, M., & Agudelo, S. V. (2011). Piloting a tool for reentry: A promising approach to engaging family members. New
  165. Journal of Criminal Justice
    https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jcrimjus.2006.05.010
  166. DEPARTMENT OF CORRECTIONS TO BAN INMATES FROM SOLICITING PEN PALS ON WEBSITES – Missouri Department of Corrections, pres
    https://web.archive.org/web/20121105064844/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-1232308661.html
  167. Wired News
    https://web.archive.org/web/20140305073423/http://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/news/2002/12/56880
  168. CNN
    https://web.archive.org/web/20160630001946/http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-579221
  169. FindLaw
    https://web.archive.org/web/20071215065659/http://sol.lp.findlaw.com/2000/shaw.html
  170. "California Prison Reform and Rehabilitation"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110218124749/http://www.cdcr.ca.gov/News/background_info.html
  171. Prison and Detention Conditions. Human Rights Watch, retrieved May 22, 2015.
    https://www.hrw.org/united-states/us-program/prison-and-detention-conditions
  172. "Inhumane Prison Conditions Still Threaten Life, Health of Alabama Inmates Living with HIV/AIDS, According to Court Filings"
    https://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/02/28/usdom10223.htm
  173. The Prison Journal
    https://web.archive.org/web/20120217180113/http://www.spr.org/pdf/struckman.pdf
  174. Harper's Magazine
    https://web.archive.org/web/20130601185121/http://harpers.org:80/archive/2003/08/sick-on-the-inside
  175. Liliana Segura (October 1, 2013).With 2.3 Million People Incarcerated in the US, Prisons Are Big Business. The Nation. R
    http://www.thenation.com/prison-profiteers#
  176. Abigail Leonard & Adam May (May 28, 2014). Whistleblower: Arizona inmates are dying from inadequate health care. Al Jaze
    http://america.aljazeera.com/watch/shows/america-tonight/articles/2014/5/27/whistleblower-arizonainmatesaredyingfrominadequatehealthcare.html
  177. David M. Reutter, Gary Hunter & Brandon Sample. Appalling Prison and Jail Food Leaves Prisoners Hungry for Justice. Pris
    https://www.prisonlegalnews.org/news/2010/apr/15/appalling-prison-and-jail-food-leaves-prisoners-hungry-for-justice/
  178. The Village Voice
    https://web.archive.org/web/20190611143132/https://www.villagevoice.com/2009/11/09/prison-riot-caused-by-prison-food/
  179. The Atlantic
    https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2017/12/prison-food-sickness-america/549179/
  180. "Gang and Security Threat Group Awareness"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20060619183135/http://www.dc.state.fl.us/pub/gangs/
  181. "Prison Attacks Calling Attention to Overcrowding"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20120302082715/http://www.signonsandiego.com:80/uniontrib/20080405/news_1n5prisons.html
  182. New York Times
    https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/05/us/05calif.html?pagewanted=print
  183. Order for population reduction plan, pg. 9, three-judge court convened by the Chief Judge of the United States Court of
    http://www.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/general/2009/08/04/Opinion%20&%20Order%20FINAL.pdf
  184. The New York Times
    https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/25/us/25prison.html?pagewanted=all
  185. PBS
    https://web.archive.org/web/20140121092547/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/law/july-dec11/prisons_07-15.html
  186. The New York Times
    https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/24/us/24scotus.html?_r=0
  187. Rosen Bien Galvan & Grunfeld LLP
    http://rbgg.com/rbg-and-co-counsel-win-affirmance-at-supreme-court-of-the-united-states/
  188. "Solitary confinement should be banned in most cases"
    https://news.un.org/en/story/2011/10/392012
  189. "How Many Prisoners Are in Solitary Confinement in the United States?"
    http://solitarywatch.com/2012/02/01/how-many-prisoners-are-in-solitary-confinement-in-the-united-states
  190. Al Jazeera
    https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/27/solitary-confinement-is-still-widespread-in-us-prisons-and-jails
  191. Cannabis Culture
    https://web.archive.org/web/20130502082501/http://www.cannabisculture.com/articles/199.html
  192. Cara Tabachnick (December 27, 2013). There's an alarming number of deaths in US jails. The Guardian. Retrieved December
    https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/dec/27/deaths-in-jails-885-inmates
  193. The Washington Post
    https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2015/07/23/how-often-do-prisoners-die-behind-bars/
  194. Grist Magazine
    http://grist.org/list/everybody-wants-condom-vending-machines/?sub_email=sundaybottle%40hotmail.com
  195. Around the Nation
    https://www.npr.org/2015/01/21/378678167/california-prisons-aim-to-keep-sex-between-inmates-safe-if-illegal
  196. Alabama Guards Stage Work Strike Months After Prisoner Uprising at Overcrowded Holman Facility. Democracy Now! September
    http://www.democracynow.org/2016/9/28/alabama_guards_stage_work_strike_months
  197. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
    https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6919e1.htm?s_cid=mm6919e1_w
  198. The Journal of American History
    https://academic.oup.com/jah/article/102/1/25/686630
  199. Davis, A. Y. (2011). How Gender Structures the Prison System. In Are prisons obsolete? (pp. 60–67). essay, Seven Stories
  200. Khalek, Rania. How private prisons game the system. Salon.com. December 1, 2011.
    http://www.salon.com/2011/12/01/how_private_prisons_game_the_system/
  201. Harcourt, Bernard (2012). The Illusion of Free Markets: Punishment and the Myth of Natural Order. Harvard University Pre
    http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674066168
  202. Selman, Donna and Paul Leighton (2010). Punishment for Sale: Private Prisons, Big Business, and the Incarceration Binge.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=5lBraTDtiSgC&pg=PR11
  203. African American Families
  204. Journal of the Oklahoma Criminal Justice Research Consortium
  205. Marie Gottschalk. Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics. Princeton University Press, 2014. 70
    http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10731.html
  206. "Banking on Bondage: Private Prisons and Mass Incarceration"
    https://www.aclu.org/files/assets/bankingonbondage_20111102.pdf
  207. Margaret Newkirk & William Selway (July 12, 2013). "Gangs Ruled Prison as For-Profit Model Put Blood on Floor." Bloomber
    https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-07-12/gangs-ruled-prison-as-for-profit-model-put-blood-on-floor.html
  208. Jerry Mitchell (September 25, 2014). East Mississippi prison called 'barbaric'. The Clarion-Ledger. Retrieved December 1
    http://www.clarionledger.com/story/news/2014/09/25/east-mississippi-prison-called-barbaric/16242399/
  209. Timothy Williams (November 6, 2014). Christopher Epps, Former Chief of Prisons in Mississippi, Is Arraigned. The New Yor
    https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/07/us/christopher-epps-former-chief-of-prisons-in-mississippi-is-arraigned.html?_r=0
  210. Stroud, Matt (February 24, 2014). The Private Prison Racket. Politico. Retrieved February 25, 2014.
    https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2014/02/private-prison-racket-103893/
  211. Kirkham, Chris (September 27, 2012). Private Prisons: Immigration Convictions In Record Numbers Fueling Corporate Profit
    https://huffingtonpost.com/2012/09/27/private-prisons-immigration_n_1917636.html
  212. Renee Lewis (February 23, 2015). Inmates riot at for-profit Texas immigrant detention facility. Al Jazeera America. Retr
    http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/2/23/Texas-prison-riot.html
  213. Theoretical Criminology
    https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1362480609352783
  214. The Tennessean
    http://www.tennessean.com/story/news/2016/10/28/cca-changes-name-amid-ongoing-scrutiny/92883274/
  215. Matt Taibbi (2014). The Divide: American Injustice in the Age of the Wealth Gap. Spiegel & Grau. ISBN 081299342X pp. 214
  216. "Prison Economics Help Drive Ariz. Immigration Law"
    https://www.npr.org/2010/10/28/130833741/prison-economics-help-drive-ariz-immigration-law
  217. Sullivan, Laura (2010). Shaping State Laws With Little Scrutiny. National Public Radio.
    https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=130891396
  218. Elk, Mike and Sloan, Bob (2011). The Hidden History of ALEC and Prison Labor. The Nation.
    http://www.thenation.com/article/162478/hidden-history-alec-and-prison-labor
  219. Prison Privatization and the Use of Incarceration Archived July 14, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. The Sentencing Project
    http://www.sentencingproject.org/Admin/Documents/publications/inc_prisonprivatization.pdf
  220. "Jailing Americans for Profit: The Rise of the Prison Industrial Complex"
    https://www.rutherford.org/publications_resources/john_whiteheads_commentary/jailing_americans_for_profit_the_rise_of_the_prison_industrial_complex
  221. Pat Beall (November 22, 2013). Big business, legislators pushed for stiff sentences. The Palm Beach Post. Retrieved Nove
    http://www.mypalmbeachpost.com/news/news/big-business-group-behind-push-that-filled-florida/nbYTc/
  222. Governing
    http://www.governing.com/topics/politics/What-Makes-Alec-Smart.html
  223. Beau Hodai, "Corporate Con Game. How the private prison industry helped shape Arizona's anti-immigrant law", In These Ti
    http://inthesetimes.com/article/6084/corporate_con_game
  224. Toughest Beat – Oxford Scholarship
    https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780195384055.001.0001
  225. California Prison Guards Union Pushes For Prison Expansion. The Huffington Post. September 9, 2013.
    https://huffingtonpost.com/2013/09/09/california-prison-guards_n_3894490.html
  226. Chris Kirkham (September 19, 2013). Prison Quotas Push Lawmakers To Fill Beds, Derail Reform. The Huffington Post. Retri
    https://huffingtonpost.com/2013/09/19/private-prison-quotas_n_3953483.html
  227. Eric Schlosser (December 1998). The Prison-Industrial Complex. The Atlantic. Retrieved December 31, 2013.
    https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1998/12/the-prison-industrial-complex/304669/
  228. Ray Downs (May 17, 2013). Who's Getting Rich Off the Prison-Industrial Complex? Vice. Retrieved December 31, 2013.
    https://www.vice.com/en/article/whos-getting-rich-off-the-prison-industrial-complex/
  229. Selman, Donna and Paul Leighton (2010). Punishment for Sale: Private Prisons, Big Business, and the Incarceration Binge.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=5lBraTDtiSgC&pg=PA78
  230. Prison Payback on YouTube. Russia Today on YouTube
    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X5EnKviqktg
  231. Marie Gottschalk (March 5, 2015). It's Not Just the Drug War. Jacobin. Retrieved March 5, 2015.
    https://www.jacobinmag.com/2015/03/mass-incarceration-war-on-drugs/
  232. Detention Watch Network, "The Influence of the Private Prison Industry in Immigration Detention", 2012, http://www.deten
    http://www.detentionwatchnetwork.org/privateprisons
  233. DiversityInc, "The Prison Industrial Complex: Biased, Predatory and Growing", October 8, 2010, http://www.diversityinc.c
    http://www.diversityinc.com/diversity-management/the-prison-industrial-complex-biased-predatory-and-growing/
  234. David Harris-Gershon, "America's Corrupt Justice System: Federal Private Prison Populations Grew by 784% in 10 Year Span
    http://www.alternet.org/speakeasy/tikkundaily/americas-corrupt-justice-system-federal-private-prison-populations-grew-784-10
  235. National Criminal Justice Reference Service
    https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=189196
  236. Justice Is Not For Sale Act. Sanders.senate.gov
    http://www.sanders.senate.gov/download/summary-of-justice-is-not-for-sale-?inline=file
  237. Bernie Sanders declares war on the prison-industrial complex with major new bill. Salon. September 17, 2015.
    http://www.salon.com/2015/09/17/bernie_sanders_declares_war_on_the_prison_industrial_complex_with_major_new_bill/
  238. Private federal prisons more dangerous, damning DoJ investigation reveals. The Guardian. August 12, 2016.
    https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/aug/12/private-federal-prisons-more-dangerous-justice-department
  239. Justice Department Will Stop the Use of Private Prisons. Time. August 18, 2016.
    https://time.com/4457597/private-prisons-justice-department/
  240. U.S. reverses Obama-era move to phase out private prisons. Reuters. February 23, 2017
    https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-prisons-idUSKBN1622NN
  241. CNN
    http://www.cnn.com/2017/08/18/politics/private-prison-department-of-justice/index.html
  242. The Nation
    https://web.archive.org/web/20171217223014/https://www.thenation.com/article/under-trump-the-private-prison-boom-shows-no-sign-of-slowing/
  243. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/dec/28/private-prisons-investors-trump-tax-bill
  244. www.reuters.com
    https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-detention/11-toothpaste-immigrants-pay-big-for-basics-at-private-ice-lock-ups-idUSKCN1PC0DJ
  245. Nathan James. Federal Prison Industries. CRS Report for Congress. Updated July 13, 2007.
    https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL32380.pdf
  246. Federal Prison Industries, Inc: Hearing Before the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. House of Representatives
    https://books.google.com/books?id=yypS_JuZ0XMC&q=%22Federal+Prison+Industries,+Inc.%22
  247. Nate C. Hindman (August 15, 2012). Unicor Under Fire For Dominating Small Competitors With Cheap Prison Labor. The Huffi
    https://huffingtonpost.com/2012/08/15/unicor-prison-labor_n_1778765.html
  248. The Nation
    http://www.thenation.com/article/your-valentine-made-prison
  249. Simon McCormack (December 10, 2012). Prison Labor Booms As Unemployment Remains High; Companies Reap Benefits. The Huffi
    https://huffingtonpost.com/2012/12/10/prison-labor_n_2272036.html
  250. Truthdig
    https://www.truthdig.com/articles/boycott-divest-and-sanction-corporations-that-feed-on-prisons/
  251. Marie Gottschalk. Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics. Princeton University Press, 2014. p. 6
    https://press.princeton.edu/titles/10731.html
  252. Hijacked: How Neoliberalism Turned the Work Ethic against Workers and How Workers Can Take It Back
  253. Washington Post
    https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/crime/town-struggles-to-survive-close-of-prison/2012/01/20/gIQAsq6bYQ_story.html
  254. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/sep/09/us-nationwide-prison-strike-alabama-south-carolina-texas
  255. The Intercept
    https://theintercept.com/2016/09/16/the-largest-prison-strike-in-u-s-history-enters-its-second-week/
  256. Work Stoppage Prison Strike Continues in 11 US States Archived September 22, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. The Real News
    http://therealnews.com/t2/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=74&jumival=17280
  257. PBS Newshour
    https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/prison-strike-lockdown-fallout
  258. Teen Vogue
    https://www.teenvogue.com/story/how-the-national-prison-strike-is-working-to-help-incarcerated-people-in-the-united-states
  259. Vox
    https://www.vox.com/2018/8/21/17721874/national-prison-strike-2018-13th-amendment-attica
  260. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/aug/23/prison-strike-us-canada-forced-labor-protest-activism
  261. NPR
    https://www.npr.org/2018/08/21/640630606/u-s-inmates-plan-nationwide-prison-strike-to-protest-labor-conditions
  262. USA Today
    https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/policing/spotlight/2018/08/25/nationwide-prison-strikes-labor-inmates-policing-usa/1085896002/
  263. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/jun/15/us-prison-workers-low-wages-exploited
  264. The Guardian
    https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/sep/27/slavery-loophole-unpaid-labor-in-prisons
  265. Breaking AC
    https://breakingac.com/news/2025/jun/17/unveiling-the-system-forced-labor-in-us-prisons-and-the-push-for-reform/
  266. FinancialContent
    https://markets.financialcontent.com/stocks/article/abnewswire-2025-8-29-itucs-new-report-spotlights-prison-slavery-in-the-united-states
  267. Minnesota Spokesman-Recorder
    https://spokesman-recorder.com/2025/05/10/minnesota-prison-labor-reform/
  268. Direct expenditures by justice function, 1982–2007 (billions of dollars). Inflation adjusted to 2007 dollars. U.S. Burea
    https://web.archive.org/web/20120101181331/http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/glance/tables/exptyptab.cfm
  269. Justice Expenditures and Employment, FY 1982–2007 – Statistical Tables (NCJ 236218). Published December 2011. U.S. Burea
    https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=2192
  270. Wall Street Journal
    https://www.wsj.com/articles/as-arrest-records-rise-americans-find-consequences-can-last-a-lifetime-1408415402
  271. White Paper on Security Fact Sheet. December 1, 2014. Retrieved October 16, 2020. ▲Church Publishing.
    https://church-publishing.com/wmedia/2014/12/White-Paper-on-Security-Fact-Sheet.pdf
  272. Federal Prison System Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) FY 2015 Budget Request At A Glance. December 21, 2013. Retrieved S
    https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/jmd/legacy/2013/12/21/bop.pdf
  273. white paper On Security: 50 States' Departments of Corrections insert. February 2, 2015. Retrieved October 16, 2014. ▲Ch
    https://church-publishing.com/non-fiction/white-paper-on-security
  274. Annual Determination of Average Cost of Incarceration. A notice by the Prisons Bureau on March 9, 2015, in the Federal R
    https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2015/03/09/2015-05437/annual-determination-of-average-cost-of-incarceration
  275. The Price of Prisons: What Incarceration Costs Taxpayers Archived August 13, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. February 29,
    http://www.vera.org/pubs/special/price-prisons-what-incarceration-costs-taxpayers
  276. California Criminal Justice FAQ: How much does it cost to incarcerate an inmate? California Legislative Analyst's Office
    http://www.lao.ca.gov/laoapp/laomenus/sections/crim_justice/6_cj_inmatecost.aspx
  277. National Public Radio
    https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=122725819
  278. Bail Burden Keeps U.S. Jails Stuffed With Inmates. By Laura Sullivan. January 21, 2010. National Public Radio.
    https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=122725771
  279. Jail Inmates at Midyear 2009 – Statistical Tables Archived November 7, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. By Minton D. Todd.
    https://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=2195
  280. Census of Jails, 2005–2019 – Statistical Tables. U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics. October 2021.
    https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/census-jails-2005-2019-statistical-tables#additional-details-0
  281. Bondsman Lobby Targets Pretrial Release Programs. By Laura Sullivan. January 22, 2010. National Public Radio.
    https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=122725849
  282. Jails Stuffed To Capacity In Many U.S. Counties. January 20, 2010. National Public Radio. Chart using 2008 jail statisti
    https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=122336311
  283. "Fiscal Year 2009 State Expenditure Report"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110823001828/http://nasbo.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=w7RqO74llEw%3D&tabid=79
  284. One in 100: Behind Bars in America 2008. February 28, 2008. The Pew Center on the States.
    http://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2008/02/28/one-in-100-behind-bars-in-america-2008
  285. HuffPost
    https://www.huffpost.com/entry/mass-incarceration-cost_n_57d82d99e4b09d7a687fde21
  286. Emma Brown and Danielle Douglas-Gabriel (July 7, 2016). Since 1980, spending on prisons has grown three times as much as
    https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/education/wp/2016/07/07/since-1980-spending-on-prisons-has-grown-three-times-faster-than-spending-on-public-education/
  287. Bureau of Justice Statistics
    https://web.archive.org/web/20121012123950/http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/glance/tables/vsxtab.cfm
  288. Criminology & Public Policy
    https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1745-9133.2006.00376.x
  289. Social Science Quarterly
    https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1540-6237.00106
  290. Justice Quarterly
    https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07418820300095451
  291. Social Science Research
    https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ssresearch.2010.08.001
  292. Laughland, Oliver. (February 12, 2015). Mass incarceration does not explain dramatic fall in US crime, study finds. The
    https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/feb/12/mass-incarceration-does-not-explain-fall-us-crime-rate-study
  293. "Confronting Confinement"
    https://www.vera.org/publications/confronting-confinement
  294. War on the Family: Mothers in Prison and the Children They Leave Behind
  295. Civil Rights Journal
  296. The Denver Post
    http://www.denverpost.com/ci_8400051
  297. "6 Million Lost Voters: State-Level Estimates of Felony Disenfranchisement, 2016"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20200221025007/https://www.sentencingproject.org/issues/felony-disenfranchisement/
  298. Career Builder
    https://web.archive.org/web/20221203095617/https://www.careerbuilder.com/advice/majority-of-employers-background-check-employees
  299. Crime and Justice
    https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/721018
  300. The American Prospect
    https://web.archive.org/web/20111001165128/http://prospect.org/cs/articles?article=the_new_jim_crow
  301. Life Sentences Blog
    https://web.archive.org/web/20190305042435/http://www.lifesentencesblog.com/?p=5017
  302. Children of the Prison Boom: Mass Incarceration and the Future of American Inequality
  303. War on the family : mothers in prison and the families they leave behind
    https://archive.org/details/waronfamilymothe0000gold
  304. Journal of Marriage and the Family
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5880045
  305. www.childstats.gov
    https://www.childstats.gov/americaschildren/tables/pop1.asp
  306. Prison Policy Initiative
    https://www.prisonpolicy.org/blog/2017/05/08/mothers-day/
  307. Social Science Quarterly
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2835345
  308. Pediatrics
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3608482
  309. Journal of Health and Social Behavior
    https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022146514544173
  310. Demography
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3703506
  311. Pediatrics
    https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2011-2662
  312. Attachment & Human Development
    https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14751790903416889
  313. Journal of Family Psychology
    https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0893-3200.19.3.350
  314. Health & Justice
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8327457
  315. Psychological Bulletin
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3283435
  316. Psychiatry
    https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00332747.1977.11023929
  317. Petsch, P., & Rochlen, A. B. (2009). Children of Incarcerated Parents: Implications for School Counselors. Journal of Sc
  318. "Intergenerational Effects of Mass Incarceration"
    https://www.ssc.wisc.edu/~agaulke/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/threestrikes_edited-3.pdf
  319. Sociology Compass
    https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fsoc4.12440
  320. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health
    https://jech.bmj.com/content/63/11/912
  321. Social Science & Medicine
    https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277953619306136
  322. Journal of Urban Health
    https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-018-0276-0
  323. Official web site of the U.S. Health Resources & Services Administration
    https://web.archive.org/web/20220730103840/https://www.hrsa.gov/about/organization/bureaus/ohe/health-literacy/index.html
  324. Children of incarcerated parents
    https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31739788
  325. Urban Institute
    https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/53721/2000256-Children-of-Incarcerated-Parents-Framework-Document.pdf
  326. N.M. Stat. Ann. §29-7-7.3
  327. Bureau of Justice Assistance
    https://www.bja.gov/Publications/IACP-SafeguardingChildren.pdf
  328. Okla. Stat. tit. 22, §22–20
  329. Principles of Penal Law
  330. N.Y. Corrections Law §611
  331. London Journal of Primary Care
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5330336
  332. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. §5120.65
  333. Cal. Penal Code §§3410–3424
  334. The ChildTrauma Academy
    https://web.archive.org/web/20181022035133/https://childtrauma.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Bonding_13.pdf
  335. "Deputy Attorney General Sally Q. Yates Announces Family-Friendly Prison Policies to Strengthen Inmate-Familial Bonds"
    https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/deputy-attorney-general-sally-q-yates-announces-family-friendly-prison-policies-strengthen
  336. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation
    https://doi.org/10.1300%2Fj076v43n01_05
  337. European Journal of Probation
    https://doi.org/10.1177%2F206622031000200205
  338. 2007 Okla. Sess. Laws, Chap. 274
  339. Criminology
    https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1745-9125.2012.00283.x
  340. www.pewtrusts.org
    https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2016/05/24/having-a-parent-behind-bars-costs-children-states
  341. American Journal of Sociology
    https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/pager/files/pager_ajs.pdf
  342. press.uchicago.edu
    http://press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/644839.html
  343. American Sociological Review
    http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/brucewestern/files/western_asr.pdf
  344. ASPE
    https://aspe.hhs.gov/reports/psychological-impact-incarceration-implications-post-prison-adjustment-0
  345. Ex-Offenders and the Labor Market
    http://cepr.net/documents/publications/ex-offenders-2010-11.pdf
  346. Prisoners in 2013
    https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/p13.pdf
  347. Prisoners in 2013
    https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/p13.pdf
  348. Race and Justice
    https://www.crimrxiv.com/pub/jailandlabormarkets
  349. Critical Criminology
    https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-018-9399-6
  350. Arizona Journal of Environmental Law & Policy
    https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/arijel11&div=15&id=&page=
  351. Geographica Helvetica
    https://gh.copernicus.org/articles/69/345/2014/
  352. Punishment & Society
    https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/14624745221114826
  353. Climate Change and Law Collection
    https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004322714_cclc_2021-0157-490
  354. TIME
    https://time.com/6281702/prisons-heat-deaths-climate-change-air-conditioning/
  355. Vox
    https://www.vox.com/identities/2019/12/13/21012730/cold-prison-incarcerated-winter
  356. www.psychologytoday.com
    https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/socially-relevant/201508/the-rise-green-prison-programs
  357. SSRN
    https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2608698
  358. "The effect of prison on criminal behavior"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20090204195852/http://publicsafety.gc.ca/res/cor/sum/cprs199911-eng.aspx
  359. 18 U.S.C. § 3582(a)
    https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/3582#a
  360. "US Addiction to Incarceration Puts 2.3 Million in Prison"
    https://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/12/01/usdom14728.htm
  361. Hard Time Blues: How Politics Built a Prison Nation
    https://archive.org/details/hardtimeblues00abra
  362. Prison Inmates at Midyear 2009 – Statistical Tables (NCJ 230113). Published June 2010, by U.S. Bureau of Justice Statist
    https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=2200
  363. "America's One-Million Nonviolent Prisoners"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20101028124951/http://cjcj.org/files/americas.pdf
  364. The Washington Post
    https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/07/AR2006060702050.html
  365. READ: Matt Taibbi on "The Divide: American Injustice in the Age of the Wealth Gap". Democracy Now! April 14, 2014. Retri
    http://www.democracynow.org/blog/2014/4/14/read_matt_taibbi_on_the_divide
  366. Meranze, Michael (February 4, 2015). Pathology of the Carceral State. Los Angeles Review of Books. Retrieved February 16
    http://lareviewofbooks.org/review/pathology-carceral-state
  367. Oklahoma Law Review
    https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=4269167
  368. Hadar Aviram (September 7, 2014). Are Private Prisons to Blame for Mass Incarceration and its Evils? Prison Conditions,
    https://ssrn.com/abstract=2492782
  369. Loïc Wacquant. Prisons of Poverty Archived November 29, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. University of Minnesota Press (200
    https://www.upress.umn.edu/9780816639014/prisons-of-poverty/
  370. David Jaffee (December 29, 2014). Guest column: Real reason behind prison explosion. The Florida Times-Union. Retrieved
    http://www.unf.edu/~djaffee/
  371. Marie Gottschalk. Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics. Princeton University Press, 2014. p. 1
    http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10731.html
  372. Punishing the Poor: The Neoliberal Government of Social Insecurity
    https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/1399/chapter/167554/PrologueAmerica-as-Living-Laboratory-of-the
  373. Frances Goldin, Debby Smith, Michael Smith (2014). Imagine: Living in a Socialist USA. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0062305573
  374. Bernard Harcourt (April 30, 2012). Laissez-faire with strip-searches: America's two-faced liberalism. The Guardian. Retr
    https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2012/apr/30/laissez-faire-with-strip-searches-liberalism
  375. The Rise and Fall of the Neoliberal Order: America and the World in the Free Market Era
    https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-neoliberal-order-9780197519646?cc=us&lang=en&
  376. Catalyst
    https://catalyst-journal.com/vol3/no3/the-economic-origins-of-mass-incarceration
  377. The Economist
    https://www.economist.com/leaders/2018/10/20/there-is-nothing-inevitable-about-americas-over-use-of-prisons
  378. Chris Hedges. The Shame of America's Gulag. Truthdig. March 17, 2013.
    https://www.truthdig.com/articles/the-shame-of-americas-gulag/
  379. "Bulging Prison System Called Massive Intervention in American Family Life"
    http://www.washington.edu/news/archive/id/43061
  380. Wall Street Journal
    https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390443589304577637610097206808?mod=googlenews_wsj
  381. Washington Post
    https://web.archive.org/web/20121221170848/http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/federal-judge-blocks-alabama-policy-of-segregating-hiv-inmates/2012/12/21/a4fcf006-4b83-11e2-8758-b64a2997a921_story.html
  382. "Federal Prison Oversight Act"
    https://www.ossoff.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/22.09.28_Federal-Prison-Oversight-Act-FINAL.pdf
  383. "Bill Introduced To Bring Independent Oversight to Federal Prison System"
    https://reason.com/2022/09/30/bill-introduced-to-bring-independent-oversight-to-federal-prison-system/
  384. ABA's 560-member policy making House of Delegates
    http://www.abajournal.com/news/article/sweeping_reversal_of_the_war_on_drugs_announced_by_atty_general_holder/?sc_cid=130815AR
  385. Remarks to American Bar Association's Annual Convention in San Francisco, CA
    http://www.abajournal.com/files/SMART_ON_CRIME.PDF
  386. "Prison Strip Search is Sexually Abusive"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20140206162052/https://www.aclu.org/prisoners-rights-womens-rights/prison-strip-search-sexually-abusive
  387. University of Maryland Law Journal of Race, Religion, Gender & Class
    http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=598ea7e1-d5c0-4aa3-b3a2-e43c9382e24a%40sessionmgr120&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=115790483&db=a9h
  388. Chicago Tribune
    https://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/music/greg-kot/ct-ent-raphael-saadiq-review-20190823-qgn3eawnozf2vpqqjc3gnw7bga-story.html
  389. Washington Post
    https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/arts-and-entertainment/wp/2016/10/06/ava-duvernays-netflix-film-13th-reveals-how-mass-incarceration-is-an-extension-of-slavery/
  390. The Feminist Wire
    https://web.archive.org/web/20141009121354/http://thefeministwire.com/2014/10/blacklivesmatter-2/
  391. USA Today
    https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2014/03/30/tough-crime-fairness-cost/6836605/
Image
Source: —
Tip: Wheel or +/− to zoom, drag to pan, Esc to close.