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History of Ukraine

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History of Ukraine

The history of Ukraine spans thousands of years, tracing its roots to the Pontic steppe—one of the key centers of the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages, Indo-European migrations, and early horse domestication. In antiquity, the region was home to the Scythians, followed by the gradual expansion of Slavic tribes. The northern Black Sea coast saw the influence of Greek and Roman colonies, leaving a lasting cultural legacy. Over time, these diverse influences contributed to the development of early political and cultural structures. Ukraine enters into written history with the establishment of the medieval state of Kievan Rus'. In Dnieper Ukraine, the tribe of Polans played a key role in the formation of the state, adopting the name Rus' by the 9th century. The term is believed to have connections to the Varangians, who contributed to the state's early political and military structure. By the 10th–11th centuries, Kievan Rus' had grown into one of the most powerful and culturally advanced states in Europe, reaching its golden age under Vladimir the Great and Yaroslav the Wise, who introduced Christianity and strengthened political institutions. However, internal conflicts among Kyivan rulers, along with increasing pressure from Turkic nomads in Southern Ukraine, gradually weakened the state. In the 13th century, Kievan Rus' suffered devastating destruction during the Mongol invasion, particularly in its Dnieper heartlands. While much of its former territory fell under Mongol control, the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia (Ruthenia) emerged as a major center that preserved political and cultural traditions of Rus', especially under King Daniel. Despite continued Mongol dominance in the region, the kingdom retained a degree of autonomy and became a vital repository of Rus' heritage. However, over the subsequent centuries, shifting regional power dynamics gradually transformed the political landscape. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the majority of Ukrainian territories became part of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia, while Galicia and Transcarpathia came under Polish and Hungarian rule. Lithuania kept the local Ruthenian traditions, and was gradually influenced by Ruthenian language, law and culture, until Lithuania itself came under Polish influence, following the Union of Krewo and Union of Lublin, resulting in two countries merging into Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, leaving Ukrainian lands under the dominance of the Polish crown. Meanwhile Southern Ukraine was dominated by Golden Horde and then Crimean Khanate, which came under protection of the Ottoman Empire, major regional power in and around Black Sea, which also had some of its own directly administrated areas as well. In the 17th century, the Cossack rebellion led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky marked a turning point in Ukraine's history. The uprising, which began in 1648, was fueled by grievances against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's nobility, religious tensions, and social inequalities. This rebellion led to the creation of the Cossack Hetmanate, a semi-autonomous polity in central and eastern Ukraine. In 1654, the Cossack Hetmanate allied with the Tsardom of Russia through the Pereiaslav Agreement. The nature of this alliance has been widely debated by historians. Some argue that it established a protectorate relationship, with Russia offering military support in exchange for loyalty, while others believe it symbolized the subordination of the Hetmanate to the Tsar. The ambiguity of the treaty's terms and differing interpretations contributed to tensions over the following decades. Over time, the relationship between the Cossack Hetmanate and Russia evolved, with Russia increasingly asserting dominance. This process intensified in the late 17th and 18th centuries, especially after the Truce of Andrusovo, which divided Ukraine between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Russia. The Cossack Hetmanate's autonomy was progressively eroded, culminating in its abolition by Catherine the Great in the late 18th century. Simultaneously, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's internal decline and external pressures from neighboring powers facilitated the partitions of Poland. These partitions allowed the Russian Empire to incorporate vast Ukrainian territories, including those previously under Polish control. Western Ukraine, however, came under the rule of the Habsburg monarchy. This division set the stage for the different historical trajectories of Ukrainian lands under Russian and Austrian influence. The 20th century began with a renewed struggle for Ukrainian statehood. Following the collapse of empires during World War I, the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) was proclaimed in 1917 with Kyiv as its capital. Meanwhile, in the western territories, the West Ukrainian People's Republic (WUPR) was established in 1918, centered in Lviv. Both republics sought to unite, forming the Unification Act (Act Zluky) on 22 January 1919. However, their independence was short-lived. The UPR faced constant military conflict with Bolshevik forces, Poland, and White Army factions. By 1921, following the Soviet-Ukrainian War, Ukrainian lands were divided: the eastern territories became the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (part of the USSR), while western Ukraine was absorbed by Poland, Romania, and Czechoslovakia. Under Soviet rule, initial policies of Ukrainianization gave way to oppressive Russification. The Holodomor famine of 1932–1933, a man-made disaster, caused the deaths of 4-5 millions Ukrainians. During World War II, Ukraine endured brutal occupations by both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) fought for independence, initially allying itself with the occupying German forces and encouraging parts of Ukrainian society to also collaborate, but the UPA ultimately battled against both German and Soviet rule. Post-war, Soviet control was reestablished, and Crimea was transferred to Ukraine in 1954. Ukraine became independent when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. This started a period of transition to a market economy, in which Ukraine suffered an eight-year recession. Subsequently, however, the economy experienced a high increase in GDP growth until it plunged during the 2008–2009 Ukrainian financial crisis. This period was marked by economic challenges, the rise of nationalism, and growing tensions with Russian Federation. In 2013, the Euromaidan protests began in response to President Viktor Yanukovych's rejection of an EU association agreement. The Revolution of Dignity followed, leading to Yanukovych's ousting. Russia annexed Crimea in 2014 and supported separatist movements in Donbas, initiating the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War. This escalated on 24 February 2022, with Russia's full-scale invasion, marking a critical phase in Ukraine's fight for sovereignty and territorial integrity.

Tables

Size and population of the voivodeships in the 16th century[131] · Early modern period › Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Galicia
Galicia
Voivodeship
Galicia
Voivodeship
45,000
Square kilometers
446,000
Volhynia
Volhynia
Voivodeship
Volhynia
Voivodeship
42,000
Square kilometers
294,000
Podilia
Podilia
Voivodeship
Podilia
Voivodeship
19,000
Square kilometers
98,000
Bratslav
Bratslav
Voivodeship
Bratslav
Voivodeship
35,000
Square kilometers
311,000
Kyiv
Kyiv
Voivodeship
Kyiv
Voivodeship
117,000
Square kilometers
234,000
Belz (two regions)
Belz (two regions)
Voivodeship
Belz (two regions)
Voivodeship
Kholm
Square kilometers
19,000
Population (est.)
133,000
Pidliassia
Pidliassia
Voivodeship
Pidliassia
Voivodeship
10,000
Square kilometers
233,000
Voivodeship
Square kilometers
Population (est.)
Galicia
45,000
446,000
Volhynia
42,000
294,000
Podilia
19,000
98,000
Bratslav
35,000
311,000
Kyiv
117,000
234,000
Belz (two regions)
Kholm
19,000
133,000
Pidliassia
10,000
233,000

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