Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration

The Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration was an era in the exploration of the continent of Antarctica which began at the end of the 19th century, and ended after the First World War; the Shackleton–Rowett Expedition of 1921–1922 is often cited by historians as the dividing line between the "Heroic" and "Mechanical" ages. During the Heroic Age, the Antarctic region became the focus of international efforts that resulted in intensive scientific and geographical exploration by 17 major Antarctic expeditions launched from ten countries. The common factor in these expeditions was the limited nature of the resources available to them before advances in transport and communication technologies revolutionized the work of exploration. Each of these expeditions therefore became a feat of endurance that tested, and sometimes exceeded, the physical and mental limits of its personnel. The "heroic" label, bestowed later, recognized the adversities which had to be overcome by these pioneers, some of whom did not survive the experience: a total of 22 expedition members died during this period. Both the geographic and magnetic South Poles were reached for the first time during the Heroic Age. The achievement of being first to the geographical pole was the primary object in many expeditions, as well as the sole rationale for Roald Amundsen's venture, which became the first to reach it in 1911. Other expeditions aimed for different objectives in different areas of the continent. As a result of all this activity, much of the continent's coastline was discovered and mapped, and significant areas of its interior were explored. The expeditions also generated large quantities of scientific data across a wide range of disciplines, the examination and analysis of which would keep the world's scientific communities busy for decades.

Infobox

Type

Hypothetical continent

Tables

· Expeditions, 1897–1922

Belgian Antarctic Expedition

Dates

1897–1899

Country

Belgium

Expedition name(s)

Belgian Antarctic Expedition

Ship(s)

Belgica

Leader

Adrien de Gerlache

Expedition summary

This was the first expedition to overwinter south of the Antarctic Circle, after the ship was icebound in the Bellingshausen Sea. It collected the first annual cycle of Antarctic observations. It also reached 71°30'S, and discovered the Gerlache Strait. First Mate Roald Amundsen would later lead the first arrival at the South Pole, in 1911.

British Antarctic Expedition 1898(Southern Cross Expedition)

Dates

1898–1900

Country

Expedition name(s)

British Antarctic Expedition 1898(Southern Cross Expedition)

Ship(s)

Southern Cross

Leader

Carsten Borchgrevink

Expedition summary

The first expedition to overwinter on the Antarctic mainland (Cape Adare), Borchgrevink's expedition was the first to make use of dogs and sledges. It made the first ascent of the Great Ice Barrier, and set a Farthest South record at 78°30'S. It also calculated the location of the South Magnetic Pole.

National Antarctic Expedition 1901(Discovery Expedition)

Dates

1901–1904

Country

Expedition name(s)

National Antarctic Expedition 1901(Discovery Expedition)

Ship(s)

Discovery (main vessel)Morning (relief ship)Terra Nova (relief ship)

Leader

Robert Falcon Scott

Expedition summary

It made the first ascent of the Western Mountains in Victoria Land, and discovered the polar plateau. Its southern journey set a new Farthest South record at 82°17'S. Many other geographical features were discovered, mapped, and named. This was the first of several expeditions based in McMurdo Sound.

First German Antarctic Expedition(Gauss Expedition)

Dates

1901–1903

Country

Germany

Expedition name(s)

First German Antarctic Expedition(Gauss Expedition)

Ship(s)

Gauss

Leader

Erich von Drygalski

Expedition summary

The first expedition to investigate eastern Antarctica, it discovered the coast of Kaiser Wilhelm II Land, and Mount Gauss. The expedition's ship became trapped in ice, which prevented more extensive exploration.

Swedish Antarctic Expedition

Dates

1901–1903

Country

Sweden

Expedition name(s)

Swedish Antarctic Expedition

Ship(s)

Antarctic (main vessel)ARA Uruguay (support ship)

Leader

Otto Nordenskjöld

Expedition summary

This expedition worked in the east coastal area of Graham Land. It was marooned on Snow Hill Island and Paulet Island in the Weddell Sea after the sinking of its expedition ship, and was later rescued by the Argentinian naval vessel ARA Uruguay.

Scottish National Antarctic Expedition

Dates

1902–1904

Country

Expedition name(s)

Scottish National Antarctic Expedition

Ship(s)

Scotia

Leader

William Speirs Bruce

Expedition summary

The permanent Orcadas weather station in South Orkney Islands was established. The Weddell Sea was penetrated to 74°01'S, and the coastline of Coats Land was discovered, defining the sea's eastern limits.

Third French Antarctic Expedition

Dates

1903–1905

Country

France

Expedition name(s)

Third French Antarctic Expedition

Ship(s)

Français

Leader

Jean-Baptiste Charcot

Expedition summary

Originally intended as a relief expedition for the stranded Nordenskjöld party, the main work of this expedition was the mapping and charting of islands and the western coasts of Graham Land, on the Antarctic Peninsula. A section of the coast was explored, and named Loubet Land after the President of France.

British Antarctic Expedition 1907(Nimrod Expedition)

Dates

1907–1909

Country

Expedition name(s)

British Antarctic Expedition 1907(Nimrod Expedition)

Ship(s)

Nimrod

Leader

Ernest Shackleton

Expedition summary

The first expedition led by Shackleton. Based in McMurdo Sound, it pioneered the Beardmore Glacier route toward the South Pole, and the (limited) use of motorised transport. Its southern march reached 88°23'S, a new Farthest South record, just 97 geographical miles from the Pole. The Northern Party reached the location of the South Magnetic Pole.

Fourth French Antarctic Expedition

Dates

1908–1910

Country

France

Expedition name(s)

Fourth French Antarctic Expedition

Ship(s)

Pourquoi-Pas? IV

Leader

Jean-Baptiste Charcot

Expedition summary

This continued the work of the earlier French expedition with a general exploration of the Bellingshausen Sea, and the discovery of islands and other features, including Marguerite Bay, Charcot Island, Renaud Island, Mikkelsen Bay, and Rothschild Island.

Japanese Antarctic Expedition

Dates

1910–1912

Country

Japan

Expedition name(s)

Japanese Antarctic Expedition

Ship(s)

Kainan Maru

Leader

Nobu Shirase

Expedition summary

The first non-European Antarctic expedition carried out a coastal exploration of King Edward VII Land, and investigated the eastern sector of the Great Ice Barrier, reaching 80°5'S.

Amundsen's South Pole expedition

Dates

1910–1912

Country

Norway

Expedition name(s)

Amundsen's South Pole expedition

Ship(s)

Fram

Leader

Roald Amundsen

Expedition summary

Amundsen set up camp on the Great Ice Barrier, at the Bay of Whales. He discovered a new route to the polar plateau via the Axel Heiberg Glacier. Using this route, a party of five led by Amundsen became the first to successfully reach the geographic South Pole on 14 December 1911.

British Antarctic Expedition 1910(Terra Nova Expedition)

Dates

1910–1913

Country

Expedition name(s)

British Antarctic Expedition 1910(Terra Nova Expedition)

Ship(s)

Terra Nova

Leader

Robert Falcon Scott†

Expedition summary

Scott's last expedition, based like his first in McMurdo Sound. Scott and four companions reached the geographic South Pole via the Beardmore route on 17 January 1912, 33 days after Amundsen. All five died on the return journey from the Pole through a combination of starvation and cold.

Second German Antarctic Expedition

Dates

1911–1913

Country

Germany

Expedition name(s)

Second German Antarctic Expedition

Ship(s)

Deutschland

Leader

Wilhelm Filchner

Expedition summary

The main objective was to establish the nature of the geographical relationship between the Weddell and Ross seas. The expedition achieved the southernmost penetration of the Weddell Sea to date, reaching 77°45'S, and discovered the Luitpold Coast, Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, and Vahsel Bay. It failed to establish a shore base from which to conduct its explorations, and after a long drift in the Weddell Sea pack it returned to South Georgia.

Australasian Antarctic Expedition

Dates

1911–1914

Country

Australia and New Zealand

Expedition name(s)

Australasian Antarctic Expedition

Ship(s)

Aurora

Leader

Douglas Mawson

Expedition summary

The expedition concentrated on the stretch of Antarctic coastline between Cape Adare and Mount Gauss, carrying out mapping and survey work on coastal and inland territories. Discoveries included Commonwealth Bay, Ninnis Glacier, Mertz Glacier, and Queen Mary Land.

Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

Dates

1914–1917

Country

Expedition name(s)

Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

Ship(s)

Endurance

Leader

Ernest Shackleton

Expedition summary

Shackleton's expedition attempted a transcontinental crossing between the Weddell and Ross seas via the South Pole, but failed to land the Weddell Sea shore party after Endurance was trapped and crushed in pack ice. The expedition then rescued itself after a series of exploits, including a prolonged drift on ice floes, a lifeboat escape to Elephant Island, an 800-mile open-boat journey to South Georgia Island, and the first crossing of South Georgia.

Ross Sea party In support of Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

Dates

1914–1917

Country

Expedition name(s)

Ross Sea party In support of Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

Ship(s)

Aurora

Leader

Aeneas Mackintosh†

Expedition summary

Its objective was to lay depots across the Great Ice Barrier, to supply the party crossing from the Weddell Sea. All the required depots were laid, but in the process three men, including the leader Mackintosh, died.

Shackleton–Rowett Expedition

Dates

1921–22

Country

Expedition name(s)

Shackleton–Rowett Expedition

Ship(s)

Quest

Leader

Ernest Shackleton†

Expedition summary

Vaguely defined objectives included coastal mapping, a possible continental circumnavigation, the investigation of sub-Antarctic islands, and oceanographic work. After Shackleton's death on 5 January 1922, Quest completed a shortened programme before returning home.

Dates	Country	Expedition name(s)	Ship(s)	Leader		Expedition summary	Refs
1897–1899	Belgium	Belgian Antarctic Expedition	Belgica		Adrien de Gerlache	This was the first expedition to overwinter south of the Antarctic Circle, after the ship was icebound in the Bellingshausen Sea. It collected the first annual cycle of Antarctic observations. It also reached 71°30'S, and discovered the Gerlache Strait. First Mate Roald Amundsen would later lead the first arrival at the South Pole, in 1911.
1898–1900	UK	British Antarctic Expedition 1898(Southern Cross Expedition)	Southern Cross		Carsten Borchgrevink	The first expedition to overwinter on the Antarctic mainland (Cape Adare), Borchgrevink's expedition was the first to make use of dogs and sledges. It made the first ascent of the Great Ice Barrier, and set a Farthest South record at 78°30'S. It also calculated the location of the South Magnetic Pole.
1901–1904	UK	National Antarctic Expedition 1901(Discovery Expedition)	Discovery (main vessel)Morning (relief ship)Terra Nova (relief ship)		Robert Falcon Scott	It made the first ascent of the Western Mountains in Victoria Land, and discovered the polar plateau. Its southern journey set a new Farthest South record at 82°17'S. Many other geographical features were discovered, mapped, and named. This was the first of several expeditions based in McMurdo Sound.
1901–1903	Germany	First German Antarctic Expedition(Gauss Expedition)	Gauss		Erich von Drygalski	The first expedition to investigate eastern Antarctica, it discovered the coast of Kaiser Wilhelm II Land, and Mount Gauss. The expedition's ship became trapped in ice, which prevented more extensive exploration.
1901–1903	Sweden	Swedish Antarctic Expedition	Antarctic (main vessel)ARA Uruguay (support ship)		Otto Nordenskjöld	This expedition worked in the east coastal area of Graham Land. It was marooned on Snow Hill Island and Paulet Island in the Weddell Sea after the sinking of its expedition ship, and was later rescued by the Argentinian naval vessel ARA Uruguay.
1902–1904	UK	Scottish National Antarctic Expedition	Scotia		William Speirs Bruce	The permanent Orcadas weather station in South Orkney Islands was established. The Weddell Sea was penetrated to 74°01'S, and the coastline of Coats Land was discovered, defining the sea's eastern limits.
1903–1905	France	Third French Antarctic Expedition	Français		Jean-Baptiste Charcot	Originally intended as a relief expedition for the stranded Nordenskjöld party, the main work of this expedition was the mapping and charting of islands and the western coasts of Graham Land, on the Antarctic Peninsula. A section of the coast was explored, and named Loubet Land after the President of France.
1907–1909	UK	British Antarctic Expedition 1907(Nimrod Expedition)	Nimrod		Ernest Shackleton	The first expedition led by Shackleton. Based in McMurdo Sound, it pioneered the Beardmore Glacier route toward the South Pole, and the (limited) use of motorised transport. Its southern march reached 88°23'S, a new Farthest South record, just 97 geographical miles from the Pole. The Northern Party reached the location of the South Magnetic Pole.
1908–1910	France	Fourth French Antarctic Expedition	Pourquoi-Pas? IV		Jean-Baptiste Charcot	This continued the work of the earlier French expedition with a general exploration of the Bellingshausen Sea, and the discovery of islands and other features, including Marguerite Bay, Charcot Island, Renaud Island, Mikkelsen Bay, and Rothschild Island.
1910–1912	Japan	Japanese Antarctic Expedition	Kainan Maru		Nobu Shirase	The first non-European Antarctic expedition carried out a coastal exploration of King Edward VII Land, and investigated the eastern sector of the Great Ice Barrier, reaching 80°5'S.
1910–1912	Norway	Amundsen's South Pole expedition	Fram		Roald Amundsen	Amundsen set up camp on the Great Ice Barrier, at the Bay of Whales. He discovered a new route to the polar plateau via the Axel Heiberg Glacier. Using this route, a party of five led by Amundsen became the first to successfully reach the geographic South Pole on 14 December 1911.
1910–1913	UK	British Antarctic Expedition 1910(Terra Nova Expedition)	Terra Nova		Robert Falcon Scott†	Scott's last expedition, based like his first in McMurdo Sound. Scott and four companions reached the geographic South Pole via the Beardmore route on 17 January 1912, 33 days after Amundsen. All five died on the return journey from the Pole through a combination of starvation and cold.
1911–1913	Germany	Second German Antarctic Expedition	Deutschland		Wilhelm Filchner	The main objective was to establish the nature of the geographical relationship between the Weddell and Ross seas. The expedition achieved the southernmost penetration of the Weddell Sea to date, reaching 77°45'S, and discovered the Luitpold Coast, Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, and Vahsel Bay. It failed to establish a shore base from which to conduct its explorations, and after a long drift in the Weddell Sea pack it returned to South Georgia.
1911–1914	Australia and New Zealand	Australasian Antarctic Expedition	Aurora		Douglas Mawson	The expedition concentrated on the stretch of Antarctic coastline between Cape Adare and Mount Gauss, carrying out mapping and survey work on coastal and inland territories. Discoveries included Commonwealth Bay, Ninnis Glacier, Mertz Glacier, and Queen Mary Land.
1914–1917	UK	Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition	Endurance		Ernest Shackleton	Shackleton's expedition attempted a transcontinental crossing between the Weddell and Ross seas via the South Pole, but failed to land the Weddell Sea shore party after Endurance was trapped and crushed in pack ice. The expedition then rescued itself after a series of exploits, including a prolonged drift on ice floes, a lifeboat escape to Elephant Island, an 800-mile open-boat journey to South Georgia Island, and the first crossing of South Georgia.
1914–1917	UK	Ross Sea party In support of Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition	Aurora		Aeneas Mackintosh†	Its objective was to lay depots across the Great Ice Barrier, to supply the party crossing from the Weddell Sea. All the required depots were laid, but in the process three men, including the leader Mackintosh, died.
1921–22	UK	Shackleton–Rowett Expedition	Quest		Ernest Shackleton†	Vaguely defined objectives included coastal mapping, a possible continental circumnavigation, the investigation of sub-Antarctic islands, and oceanographic work. After Shackleton's death on 5 January 1922, Quest completed a shortened programme before returning home.

· Expedition deaths during the Heroic Age

Carl August Wiencke

Expedition

Belgian Antarctic Expedition

Name

Carl August Wiencke

Country

Norway

Date of death

22 January 1898

Place of death

South Shetland Islands

Cause

Washed overboard and drowned

Belgium

Expedition

Émile Danco

Name

Belgium

Country

5 June 1898

Date of death

Bellingshausen Sea

Place of death

Heart disease

Nicolai Hansen

Expedition

Southern Cross Expedition

Name

Nicolai Hansen

Country

Norway

Date of death

14 October 1899

Place of death

Cape Adare, Antarctica

Cause

Intestinal disorder

Charles Bonnor

Expedition

Discovery Expedition

Name

Charles Bonnor

Country

Date of death

2 December 1901

Place of death

Lyttelton Harbour, New Zealand

Cause

Fall from ship's mast

Expedition

George Vince

Name

Country

11 March 1902

Date of death

Ross Island, Antarctica

Place of death

Slip over ice precipice

Josef Enzensperger

Expedition

First German Antarctic Expedition

Name

Josef Enzensperger

Country

Germany

Date of death

2 February 1903

Place of death

Kerguelen Island

Cause

Beriberi

Ole Kristian Wennersgaard

Expedition

Swedish Antarctic Expedition

Name

Ole Kristian Wennersgaard

Country

Sweden

Date of death

7 June 1903

Place of death

Paulet Island

Cause

Heart failure

Allan Ramsey

Expedition

Scottish National Antarctic Expedition

Name

Allan Ramsey

Country

Date of death

6 August 1903

Place of death

South Orkney Islands

Cause

Heart disease

F. Maignan

Expedition

Third French Antarctic Expedition

Name

F. Maignan

Country

France

Date of death

15 August 1903

Place of death

Le Havre, France

Cause

Struck by broken rope

Refs

4]8

Edgar Evans

Expedition

Terra Nova Expedition

Name

Edgar Evans

Country

Date of death

17 February 1912

Place of death

Beardmore Glacier, Antarctica

Cause

Head injury, starvation, and cold

Expedition

Lawrence Oates

Name

Country

17 March 1912

Date of death

Great Ice Barrier, Antarctica

Place of death

Starvation and cold

Expedition

Robert Falcon Scott

Name

Country

29 March 1912

Date of death

Great Ice Barrier, Antarctica

Place of death

Starvation and cold

Expedition

Edward Wilson

Name

Country

29 March 1912

Date of death

Great Ice Barrier, Antarctica

Place of death

Starvation and cold

Expedition

Henry Bowers

Name

Country

29 March 1912

Date of death

Great Ice Barrier, Antarctica

Place of death

Starvation and cold

Expedition

Robert Brissenden

Name

Country

17 August 1912

Date of death

Admiralty Bay, New Zealand

Place of death

Drowning

Walter Slossarczyk

Expedition

Second German Antarctic Expedition

Name

Walter Slossarczyk

Country

Germany

Date of death

26 November 1911

Place of death

Mount Duse, South Georgia

Cause

Suicide or accident

Germany

Expedition

Richard Vahsel

Name

Germany

Country

8 August 1912

Date of death

Weddell Sea

Place of death

Syphilis

Belgrave Ninnis

Expedition

Australasian Antarctic Expedition

Name

Belgrave Ninnis

Country

Date of death

14 December 1912

Place of death

King George V Land, Antarctica

Cause

Fall into crevasse

Switzerland

Expedition

Xavier Mertz

Name

Switzerland

Country

7 January 1913

Date of death

King George V Land, Antarctica

Place of death

Cold and malnutrition (Hypervitaminosis A)

Arnold Spencer-Smith

Expedition

Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition(Ross Sea party)

Name

Arnold Spencer-Smith

Country

Date of death

9 March 1916

Place of death

Ross Ice Shelf, Antarctica

Cause

Cold and scurvy

Expedition

Aeneas Mackintosh

Name

Country

8 May 1916

Date of death

McMurdo Sound, Antarctica

Place of death

Fall through sea ice

Expedition

Victor Hayward

Name

Country

8 May 1916

Date of death

McMurdo Sound, Antarctica

Place of death

Fall through sea ice

Ernest Shackleton

Expedition

Shackleton–Rowett Expedition

Name

Ernest Shackleton

Country

Date of death

5 January 1922

Place of death

South Georgia

Cause

Heart disease

Expedition	Name	Country	Date of death	Place of death	Cause	Refs
Belgian Antarctic Expedition	Carl August Wiencke	Norway	22 January 1898	South Shetland Islands	Washed overboard and drowned
Belgian Antarctic Expedition	Émile Danco	Belgium	5 June 1898	Bellingshausen Sea	Heart disease
Southern Cross Expedition	Nicolai Hansen	Norway	14 October 1899	Cape Adare, Antarctica	Intestinal disorder
Discovery Expedition	Charles Bonnor	UK	2 December 1901	Lyttelton Harbour, New Zealand	Fall from ship's mast
Discovery Expedition	George Vince	UK	11 March 1902	Ross Island, Antarctica	Slip over ice precipice
First German Antarctic Expedition	Josef Enzensperger	Germany	2 February 1903	Kerguelen Island	Beriberi
Swedish Antarctic Expedition	Ole Kristian Wennersgaard	Sweden	7 June 1903	Paulet Island	Heart failure
Scottish National Antarctic Expedition	Allan Ramsey	UK	6 August 1903	South Orkney Islands	Heart disease
Third French Antarctic Expedition	F. Maignan	France	15 August 1903	Le Havre, France	Struck by broken rope	4]8
Terra Nova Expedition	Edgar Evans	UK	17 February 1912	Beardmore Glacier, Antarctica	Head injury, starvation, and cold
	Lawrence Oates	UK	17 March 1912	Great Ice Barrier, Antarctica	Starvation and cold
	Robert Falcon Scott	UK	29 March 1912	Great Ice Barrier, Antarctica	Starvation and cold
	Edward Wilson	UK	29 March 1912	Great Ice Barrier, Antarctica	Starvation and cold
	Henry Bowers	UK	29 March 1912	Great Ice Barrier, Antarctica	Starvation and cold
	Robert Brissenden	UK	17 August 1912	Admiralty Bay, New Zealand	Drowning
Second German Antarctic Expedition	Walter Slossarczyk	Germany	26 November 1911	Mount Duse, South Georgia	Suicide or accident
Second German Antarctic Expedition	Richard Vahsel	Germany	8 August 1912	Weddell Sea	Syphilis
Australasian Antarctic Expedition	Belgrave Ninnis	UK	14 December 1912	King George V Land, Antarctica	Fall into crevasse
Australasian Antarctic Expedition	Xavier Mertz	Switzerland	7 January 1913	King George V Land, Antarctica	Cold and malnutrition (Hypervitaminosis A)
Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition(Ross Sea party)	Arnold Spencer-Smith	UK	9 March 1916	Ross Ice Shelf, Antarctica	Cold and scurvy
	Aeneas Mackintosh	UK	8 May 1916	McMurdo Sound, Antarctica	Fall through sea ice
	Victor Hayward	UK	8 May 1916	McMurdo Sound, Antarctica	Fall through sea ice
Shackleton–Rowett Expedition	Ernest Shackleton	UK	5 January 1922	South Georgia	Heart disease

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The Great Ice Barrier later became formally known as the Ross Ice Shelf. The older name has been used in this table in k
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Huntford (Shackleton biography) p. 242 (map)
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Fisher, p. 483
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https://web.archive.org/web/20170406130700/http://www.anta.canterbury.ac.nz/resources/sth_cross/intro.html
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Crane, pp. 165–66
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Scott, p. 592
Preston, pp. 218–219, 203–05
Huxley, pp. 345–46
Huxley, p. 389
Encyclopedia of the Antarctic
https://books.google.com/books?id=fRJtB2MNdJMC&q=Riffenburgh+encyclopedia
Studies in Polar Research: Chronological List of Antarctic Explorations and Related Historical Events
https://books.google.com/books?id=Sg49AAAAIAAJ&q=list+antarctic+expeditions
New York Times
https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1913/02/26/100389630.pdf
Tyler-Lewis, p. 191
Tyler-wis, pp. 196–97; p. 240
Alexander, pp. 192–93
"Adrien de Gerlache, Belgica Belgian Antarctic Expedition 1897–1899"
https://web.archive.org/web/20101009092129/http://coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/History/antarctic_whos_who_belgica.htm
"Norway's Forgotten Explorer"
http://www.heritage-antarctica.org/english/ExpeditionMembersContinued/
Riffenburgh, p. 304
Huntford (Last Place on Earth), p. 529
Alexander, pp. 4–5
"Scotland and the Antarctic, Part 3"
http://gdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk/scotia/gooant/gooant03.htm
"Antarctic History – The Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration"
https://web.archive.org/web/20120504023505/http://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/History/The_heroic_age_of_Antarctic_exploration.htm