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Hanford Site

Updated: Wikipedia source

Hanford Site

The Hanford Site is a decommissioned nuclear production complex operated by the United States federal government on the Columbia River in Benton County in the U.S. state of Washington. It has also been known as Site W and the Hanford Nuclear Reservation. Established in 1943 as part of the Manhattan Project, the site was home to the Hanford Engineer Works and B Reactor, the first full-scale plutonium production reactor in the world. Plutonium manufactured at the site was used in the first atomic bomb, which was tested in the Trinity nuclear test, and in the Fat Man bomb used in the bombing of Nagasaki. During the Cold War, the project expanded to include nine nuclear reactors and five large plutonium processing complexes, which produced plutonium for most of the more than 60,000 weapons built for the U.S. nuclear arsenal. Nuclear technology developed rapidly during this period, and Hanford scientists produced major technological achievements. The town of Richland, established by the Manhattan Project, became self-governing in 1958, and residents were allowed to purchase their properties. After sufficient plutonium had been produced, the production reactors were shut down between 1964 and 1971. Many early safety procedures and waste disposal practices were inadequate, resulting in the release of significant amounts of radioactive materials into the air and the Columbia River, resulting in higher rates of cancer in the surrounding area. The Hanford Site became the focus of the nation's largest environmental cleanup. A citizen-led Hanford Advisory Board provides recommendations from community stakeholders, including local and state governments, regional environmental organizations, business interests, and Native American tribes. Cleanup activity is still ongoing, with over 10,000 workers employed on cleanup activities. Hanford hosts a commercial nuclear power plant, the Columbia Generating Station, and various centers for scientific research and development, such as the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, the Fast Flux Test Facility, and the LIGO Hanford Observatory. In 2015, it was designated as part of the Manhattan Project National Historical Park. Tourists can visit the site and B Reactor.

Infobox

County
Benton
State
Washington
Proposed
June 24, 1988

Tables

Month
Month
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Month
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Jan
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Feb
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Mar
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Apr
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
May
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Jun
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Jul
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Aug
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Sep
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Oct
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Nov
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Dec
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Year
Record high °F (°C)
Record high °F (°C)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Record high °F (°C)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
72(22)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
72(22)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
83(28)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
94(34)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
104(40)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
120(49)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
113(45)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
113(45)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
106(41)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
93(34)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
76(24)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
71(22)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
120(49)
Mean daily maximum °F (°C)
Mean daily maximum °F (°C)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Mean daily maximum °F (°C)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
40.0(4.4)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
47.9(8.8)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
58.1(14.5)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
66.9(19.4)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
76.9(24.9)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
84.0(28.9)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
93.6(34.2)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
92.2(33.4)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
81.8(27.7)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
65.9(18.8)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
49.2(9.6)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
39.8(4.3)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
66.4(19.1)
Mean daily minimum °F (°C)
Mean daily minimum °F (°C)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Mean daily minimum °F (°C)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
26.5(−3.1)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
28.9(−1.7)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
34.5(1.4)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
40.5(4.7)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
48.9(9.4)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
55.6(13.1)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
62.5(16.9)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
60.8(16.0)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
52.2(11.2)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
41.2(5.1)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
31.6(−0.2)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
26.0(−3.3)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
42.4(5.8)
Record low °F (°C)
Record low °F (°C)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Record low °F (°C)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
−22(−30)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
−23(−31)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
5(−15)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
21(−6)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
28(−2)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
37(3)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
39(4)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
41(5)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
30(−1)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
7(−14)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
−13(−25)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
−14(−26)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
−23(−31)
Average precipitation inches (mm)
Average precipitation inches (mm)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Average precipitation inches (mm)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
0.94(24)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
0.64(16)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
0.51(13)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
0.47(12)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
0.55(14)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
0.53(13)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
0.18(4.6)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
0.25(6.4)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
0.30(7.6)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
0.57(14)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
0.85(22)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
0.99(25)
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
6.76(172)
Source: Averages for 1991–2020, Extremes for 1945–2021
Source: Averages for 1991–2020, Extremes for 1945–2021
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Source: Averages for 1991–2020, Extremes for 1945–2021
Climate data for Hanford Site, Washington
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °F (°C)
72(22)
72(22)
83(28)
94(34)
104(40)
120(49)
113(45)
113(45)
106(41)
93(34)
76(24)
71(22)
120(49)
Mean daily maximum °F (°C)
40.0(4.4)
47.9(8.8)
58.1(14.5)
66.9(19.4)
76.9(24.9)
84.0(28.9)
93.6(34.2)
92.2(33.4)
81.8(27.7)
65.9(18.8)
49.2(9.6)
39.8(4.3)
66.4(19.1)
Mean daily minimum °F (°C)
26.5(−3.1)
28.9(−1.7)
34.5(1.4)
40.5(4.7)
48.9(9.4)
55.6(13.1)
62.5(16.9)
60.8(16.0)
52.2(11.2)
41.2(5.1)
31.6(−0.2)
26.0(−3.3)
42.4(5.8)
Record low °F (°C)
−22(−30)
−23(−31)
5(−15)
21(−6)
28(−2)
37(3)
39(4)
41(5)
30(−1)
7(−14)
−13(−25)
−14(−26)
−23(−31)
Average precipitation inches (mm)
0.94(24)
0.64(16)
0.51(13)
0.47(12)
0.55(14)
0.53(13)
0.18(4.6)
0.25(6.4)
0.30(7.6)
0.57(14)
0.85(22)
0.99(25)
6.76(172)
Source: Averages for 1991–2020, Extremes for 1945–2021
Hanford production reactors[137][205] · Cold War › Decommissioning
B Reactor
B Reactor
Reactor name
B Reactor
Start-up date
September 25, 1944
Shutdown date
February 12, 1968
Initial power (MW)
250
Final power (MW)
2,210
Cocooned
Not cocooned
D Reactor
D Reactor
Reactor name
D Reactor
Start-up date
December 14, 1944
Shutdown date
June 25, 1967
Initial power (MW)
250
Final power (MW)
2,165
Cocooned
2004
F Reactor
F Reactor
Reactor name
F Reactor
Start-up date
February 24, 1945
Shutdown date
June 25, 1965
Initial power (MW)
250
Final power (MW)
2,040
Cocooned
2003
H Reactor
H Reactor
Reactor name
H Reactor
Start-up date
October 19, 1949
Shutdown date
April 21, 1965
Initial power (MW)
400
Final power (MW)
2,140
Cocooned
2005
DR ("D Replacement") Reactor
DR ("D Replacement") Reactor
Reactor name
DR ("D Replacement") Reactor
Start-up date
October 3, 1950
Shutdown date
December 30, 1964
Initial power (MW)
250
Final power (MW)
2,015
Cocooned
2002
C Reactor
C Reactor
Reactor name
C Reactor
Start-up date
November 18, 1952
Shutdown date
April 25, 1969
Initial power (MW)
650
Final power (MW)
2,500
Cocooned
1998
KW ("K West") Reactor
KW ("K West") Reactor
Reactor name
KW ("K West") Reactor
Start-up date
January 4, 1955
Shutdown date
February 1, 1970
Initial power (MW)
1,800
Final power (MW)
4,400
Cocooned
Not cocooned
KE ("K East") Reactor
KE ("K East") Reactor
Reactor name
KE ("K East") Reactor
Start-up date
April 17, 1955
Shutdown date
January 1971
Initial power (MW)
1,800
Final power (MW)
4,400
Cocooned
2022
N Reactor
N Reactor
Reactor name
N Reactor
Start-up date
December 1963
Shutdown date
January 1987
Initial power (MW)
4,000
Final power (MW)
4,000
Cocooned
2012
Reactor name
Start-up date
Shutdown date
Initial power (MW)
Final power (MW)
Cocooned
B Reactor
September 25, 1944
February 12, 1968
250
2,210
Not cocooned
D Reactor
December 14, 1944
June 25, 1967
250
2,165
2004
F Reactor
February 24, 1945
June 25, 1965
250
2,040
2003
H Reactor
October 19, 1949
April 21, 1965
400
2,140
2005
DR ("D Replacement") Reactor
October 3, 1950
December 30, 1964
250
2,015
2002
C Reactor
November 18, 1952
April 25, 1969
650
2,500
1998
KW ("K West") Reactor
January 4, 1955
February 1, 1970
1,800
4,400
Not cocooned
KE ("K East") Reactor
April 17, 1955
January 1971
1,800
4,400
2022
N Reactor
December 1963
January 1987
4,000
4,000
2012
Hanford organizations[284] · Cleanup under Superfund › Cleanup activities
December 12, 1942
December 12, 1942
Date begun
December 12, 1942
Organization
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Responsibility
Lead U.S. Government entity
Remarks
Held role until January 1, 1947
December 12, 1942
December 12, 1942
Date begun
December 12, 1942
Organization
E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Company (DuPont)
Responsibility
All site activities
Remarks
Initial Hanford site contractor
September 1, 1946
September 1, 1946
Date begun
September 1, 1946
Organization
General Electric Company (GE)
Responsibility
All site activities
Remarks
Replaced DuPont
January 1, 1947
January 1, 1947
Date begun
January 1, 1947
Organization
Atomic Energy Commission
Responsibility
Lead U.S. Government entity
Remarks
Replaced U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
May 15, 1953
May 15, 1953
Date begun
May 15, 1953
Organization
Vitro Engineers
Responsibility
Hanford Engineering Services
Remarks
Assumed GEs new facility design role
June 1, 1953
June 1, 1953
Date begun
June 1, 1953
Organization
J. A. Jones Construction
Responsibility
Hanford Construction Services
Remarks
Assumed GEs construction role
January 1, 1965
January 1, 1965
Date begun
January 1, 1965
Organization
U.S. Testing
Responsibility
Environmental & bioassay testing
Remarks
Assumed GEs environmental and bioassay testing role
January 4, 1965
January 4, 1965
Date begun
January 4, 1965
Organization
Battelle Memorial Institute
Responsibility
Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL)
Remarks
Assumed GE's laboratory operations – subsequently renamed Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
July 1, 1965
July 1, 1965
Date begun
July 1, 1965
Organization
Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC)
Responsibility
Computer services
Remarks
New scope
August 1, 1965
August 1, 1965
Date begun
August 1, 1965
Organization
Hanford Occupational Health Foundation
Responsibility
Industrial Medicine
Remarks
Assumed GE's industrial medicine role
September 10, 1965
September 10, 1965
Date begun
September 10, 1965
Organization
Douglas United Nuclear
Responsibility
Single pass reactor operations & fuel fabrication
Remarks
Assumed part of GE's reactor operations
January 1, 1966
January 1, 1966
Date begun
January 1, 1966
Organization
Isochem
Responsibility
Chemical processing
Remarks
Assumed GE's chemical processing operations
March 1, 1966
March 1, 1966
Date begun
March 1, 1966
Organization
ITT Federal Support Services, Inc.
Responsibility
Support services
Remarks
Assumed
July 1, 1967
July 1, 1967
Date begun
July 1, 1967
Organization
Douglas United Nuclear
Responsibility
N Reactor operation
Remarks
Assumed remainder of GE's reactor operations
September 4, 1967
September 4, 1967
Date begun
September 4, 1967
Organization
Atlantic Richfield Hanford Company
Responsibility
Chemical Processing
Remarks
Replaced Isochem
August 8, 1967
August 8, 1967
Date begun
August 8, 1967
Organization
Hanford Environmental Health Foundation
Responsibility
Industrial Medicine
Remarks
Name change only
February 1, 1970
February 1, 1970
Date begun
February 1, 1970
Organization
Westinghouse Hanford Company
Responsibility
Hanford Engineering Development Laboratory
Remarks
Spun off from PNL with mission to build the Fast Flux Test Facility
September 1971
September 1971
Date begun
September 1971
Organization
ARHCO
Responsibility
Support Services
Remarks
Replaces ITT/PSS
April 1973
April 1973
Date begun
April 1973
Organization
United Nuclear Industries, Inc.
Responsibility
All production reactor operations
Remarks
Name change from Douglas United Nuclear only
January 1, 1975
January 1, 1975
Date begun
January 1, 1975
Organization
Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA)
Responsibility
Lead U.S. Government entity
Remarks
Replaced AEC – managed site until October 1, 1977
October 1, 1975
October 1, 1975
Date begun
October 1, 1975
Organization
Boeing Computer Services (BCS)
Responsibility
Computer services
Remarks
Replaced CSC
October 1, 1977
October 1, 1977
Date begun
October 1, 1977
Organization
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
Responsibility
Lead U.S. Government Agency
Remarks
Replaced ERDA – manages site presently
October 1, 1977
October 1, 1977
Date begun
October 1, 1977
Organization
Rockwell Hanford Operations (RHO)
Responsibility
Chemical Processing & Support Services
Remarks
Replaces ARCHO
June 1981
June 1981
Date begun
June 1981
Organization
Braun Hanford Company (BHC)
Responsibility
Architect & Engineering Services
Remarks
Replaces Vitro
March 1982
March 1982
Date begun
March 1982
Organization
Kaiser Engineering Hanford (KEH)
Responsibility
Architect & Engineering Services
Remarks
Replaces BHC
March 1, 1987
March 1, 1987
Date begun
March 1, 1987
Organization
KEH
Responsibility
Construction
Remarks
Consolidated contract includes former J. A. Jones work
June 29, 1987
June 29, 1987
Date begun
June 29, 1987
Organization
WHC
Responsibility
Site management & operations
Remarks
Consolidated contract includes former RHO, UNC & KEH work.
October 1, 1996
October 1, 1996
Date begun
October 1, 1996
Organization
Fluor Daniel Hanford, Inc. (FDH)
Responsibility
Site management & operations
Remarks
FDH is integrating contractor with 13 subcontracted companies
February 7, 2000
February 7, 2000
Date begun
February 7, 2000
Organization
Fluor Hanford
Responsibility
Site cleanup operations
Remarks
Transition to site cleanup (13 Fluor subcontractors held various roles)
December 11, 2000
December 11, 2000
Date begun
December 11, 2000
Organization
Bechtel National, Inc.
Responsibility
Engineering, construction, and commissioning of the Waste Treatment Plant
October 1, 2008
October 1, 2008
Date begun
October 1, 2008
Organization
Ch2M Hill Plateau Remediation Company
Responsibility
Central plateau cleanup and closure
April 8, 2009
April 8, 2009
Date begun
April 8, 2009
Organization
Washington Closure Hanford
Responsibility
River corridor cleanup and closure
May 26, 2009
May 26, 2009
Date begun
May 26, 2009
Organization
Mission Support Alliance
Responsibility
Site infrastructure and services
Remarks
Consolidated services contract
October 1, 2009
October 1, 2009
Date begun
October 1, 2009
Organization
Washington River Protection Solutions
Responsibility
Tank Farm operations
February 24, 2025
February 24, 2025
Date begun
February 24, 2025
Organization
Hanford Tank Waste & Operations Closure (H2C)
Responsibility
Tank Farm operations
Remarks
Replaces Washington River Protection Solutions
Date begun
Organization
Responsibility
Remarks
December 12, 1942
Army Corps of Engineers
Lead U.S. Government entity
Held role until January 1, 1947
December 12, 1942
E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Company (DuPont)
All site activities
Initial Hanford site contractor
September 1, 1946
General Electric Company (GE)
All site activities
Replaced DuPont
January 1, 1947
Atomic Energy Commission
Lead U.S. Government entity
Replaced U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
May 15, 1953
Vitro Engineers
Hanford Engineering Services
Assumed GEs new facility design role
June 1, 1953
J. A. Jones Construction
Hanford Construction Services
Assumed GEs construction role
January 1, 1965
Testing
Environmental & bioassay testing
Assumed GEs environmental and bioassay testing role
January 4, 1965
Battelle Memorial Institute
Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL)
Assumed GE's laboratory operations – subsequently renamed Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
July 1, 1965
Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC)
Computer services
New scope
August 1, 1965
Hanford Occupational Health Foundation
Industrial Medicine
Assumed GE's industrial medicine role
September 10, 1965
Douglas United Nuclear
Single pass reactor operations & fuel fabrication
Assumed part of GE's reactor operations
January 1, 1966
Isochem
Chemical processing
Assumed GE's chemical processing operations
March 1, 1966
ITT Federal Support Services, Inc.
Support services
Assumed
July 1, 1967
Douglas United Nuclear
N Reactor operation
Assumed remainder of GE's reactor operations
September 4, 1967
Atlantic Richfield Hanford Company
Chemical Processing
Replaced Isochem
August 8, 1967
Hanford Environmental Health Foundation
Industrial Medicine
Name change only
February 1, 1970
Westinghouse Hanford Company
Hanford Engineering Development Laboratory
Spun off from PNL with mission to build the Fast Flux Test Facility
September 1971
ARHCO
Support Services
Replaces ITT/PSS
April 1973
United Nuclear Industries, Inc.
All production reactor operations
Name change from Douglas United Nuclear only
January 1, 1975
Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA)
Lead U.S. Government entity
Replaced AEC – managed site until October 1, 1977
October 1, 1975
Boeing Computer Services (BCS)
Computer services
Replaced CSC
October 1, 1977
Department of Energy (DOE)
Lead U.S. Government Agency
Replaced ERDA – manages site presently
October 1, 1977
Rockwell Hanford Operations (RHO)
Chemical Processing & Support Services
Replaces ARCHO
June 1981
Braun Hanford Company (BHC)
Architect & Engineering Services
Replaces Vitro
March 1982
Kaiser Engineering Hanford (KEH)
Architect & Engineering Services
Replaces BHC
March 1, 1987
KEH
Construction
Consolidated contract includes former J. A. Jones work
June 29, 1987
WHC
Site management & operations
Consolidated contract includes former RHO, UNC & KEH work.
October 1, 1996
Fluor Daniel Hanford, Inc. (FDH)
Site management & operations
FDH is integrating contractor with 13 subcontracted companies
February 7, 2000
Fluor Hanford
Site cleanup operations
Transition to site cleanup (13 Fluor subcontractors held various roles)
December 11, 2000
Bechtel National, Inc.
Engineering, construction, and commissioning of the Waste Treatment Plant
October 1, 2008
Ch2M Hill Plateau Remediation Company
Central plateau cleanup and closure
April 8, 2009
Washington Closure Hanford
River corridor cleanup and closure
May 26, 2009
Mission Support Alliance
Site infrastructure and services
Consolidated services contract
October 1, 2009
Washington River Protection Solutions
Tank Farm operations
February 24, 2025
Hanford Tank Waste & Operations Closure (H2C)
Tank Farm operations
Replaces Washington River Protection Solutions

References

  1. "Hanford Site: Hanford Overview"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20120511135540/http://www.hanford.gov/page.cfm/HanfordOverview
  2. The New York Times
    https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DEFD71F38F93BA15757C0A961948260
  3. "The Columbia River at Risk: Why Hanford Cleanup is Vital to Oregon"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20100602110418/http://www.oregon.gov/ENERGY/NUCSAF/HCleanup.shtml
  4. Gerber 2007, p. 13.
  5. Smith et al. 2018, pp. 147–149.
  6. Marceau et al. 2002, p. 1.12.
  7. United States Department of Energy 2022, p. 1–6.
  8. Seattle Post-Intelligencer
    http://www.seattlepi.com/local/67172_boom19.shtml
  9. The New York Times
    https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E7D61E3FF933A25755C0A9669C8B63
  10. "Site Map Area and Description"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20070208132114/http://www.columbiariverkeeper.org/sitemap.htm
  11. "Met and Climate Data Summary Products"
    https://www.hanford.gov/files.cfm/normextr_thru_2021_out.pdf
  12. "Historical Weather Charts – Monthly and Seasonal Precipitation"
    https://www.hanford.gov/files.cfm/Monthly_and_Seasonal_Precipitation.pdf
  13. Yakima Herald-Republic
    https://www.yakimaherald.com/news/local/washington-officially-has-a-new-all-time-maximum-temperature-record-120-degrees/article_2254c6a5-b8cc-5d07-a484-d9c4af2aacaf.html
  14. HistoryLink.org: The Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History
    http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=7438
  15. National Register of Historic Places
    https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP
  16. Gerber 1992, p. 1.
  17. Gerber 2007, pp. 16–22.
  18. Gerber 1992, p. 2.
  19. Marceau et al. 2002, p. 1.10.
  20. Jones 1985, p. 77.
  21. Manhattan District 1947a, p. 1.1.
  22. Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 105.
  23. Groves 1983, pp. 42–44.
  24. Jones 1985, p. 97.
  25. Hounshell & Smith 1988, p. 339.
  26. Groves 1983, pp. 58–59.
  27. Groves 1983, pp. 69–71.
  28. Thayer 1996, p. 26.
  29. Groves 1983, pp. 70–74.
  30. "Gilbert Church's Interview"
    https://www.manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/gilbert-churchs-interview
  31. Manhattan District 1947c, pp. 2.4–2.6.
  32. Gerber 1992, p. 6.
  33. Groves 1983, pp. 74–75.
  34. "Construction of massive plutonium production complex at Hanford begins in March 1943"
    http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=5363
  35. Manhattan District 1947d, p. 4.1.
  36. "Second War Powers Act 56 Stat. 176 (1942)"
    https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/USCODE-2009-title50/USCODE-2009-title50-app-secondwar/summary
  37. Manhattan District 1947d, pp. 3.1–3.3.
  38. Manhattan District 1947d, pp. 4.1–4.2.
  39. Jones 1985, pp. 331–334.
  40. Groves 1983, pp. 76–77.
  41. Manhattan District 1947d, pp. 4.12–4.13, 4.20–4.21.
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