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Dead Sea Scrolls

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Dead Sea Scrolls

The Dead Sea Scrolls, in the narrow sense identical with the Qumran Caves Scrolls, are a set of ancient Jewish manuscripts from the Second Temple period. They were discovered over a period of ten years, between 1946 and 1956, at the Qumran Caves near Ein Feshkha in the West Bank, on the northern shore of the Dead Sea. Dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE, the Dead Sea Scrolls include the oldest surviving manuscripts of entire books later included in the biblical canons, including deuterocanonical manuscripts from late Second Temple Judaism and extrabiblical books. At the same time, they cast new light on the emergence of Christianity and of Rabbinic Judaism. In the wider sense, the Dead Sea Scrolls also include similar findings from elsewhere in the Judaean Desert, of which some are from later centuries. Almost all of the 15,000 scrolls and scroll fragments are held in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum located in Jerusalem. The Israeli government's custody of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed by Jordan and the Palestinian Authority on territorial, legal, and humanitarian grounds—they were mostly discovered following the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank and were acquired by Israel after Jordan lost the 1967 Arab–Israeli War—whilst Israel's claims are primarily based on historical and religious grounds, given their significance in Jewish history and in the heritage of Judaism. Many thousands of written fragments have been discovered in the Dead Sea area – most have been published, together with the details of their discovery, in the 40-volume Discoveries in the Judaean Desert. They represent the remnants of larger manuscripts damaged by natural causes or through human interference, with the vast majority holding only small scraps of text. However, a small number of well-preserved and nearly intact manuscripts have survived—fewer than a dozen among those from the Qumran Caves. Researchers have assembled a collection of 981 different manuscripts (discovered in 1946/1947 and in 1956) from 11 caves, which lie in the immediate vicinity of the Hellenistic Jewish settlement at the site of Khirbet Qumran in the eastern Judaean Desert in the West Bank. The caves are located about 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) west of the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, whence the scrolls derive their name. Archaeologists have long associated the scrolls with the ancient Jewish sect known as the Essenes, although some recent interpretations have challenged this connection and argue that priests in Jerusalem or other unknown Jewish groups wrote the scrolls. Most of the manuscripts are written in Hebrew, with some written in Aramaic (for example the Son of God Text, in different regional dialects, including Nabataean) and a few in Greek. Other discoveries from the Judaean Desert add Latin (from Masada), and some later Arabic manuscripts from the 7th-8th centuries CE (from Khirbet al-Mird). Most of the texts are written on parchment, some on papyrus, and one on copper. Though scholarly consensus dates the Dead Sea Scrolls to between the 3rd century BCE and the 1st century CE, there are Arabic manuscripts from associated Judaean Desert sites that are dated between the 8th and 10th century CE. Bronze coins found at the same sites form a series beginning with John Hyrcanus, a ruler of the Hasmonean Kingdom (in office 135–104 BCE), and continuing until the period of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), supporting the paleography and radiocarbon dating of the scrolls. Owing to the poor condition of some of the scrolls, scholars have not identified all of their texts. The identified texts fall into three general groups:

About 40% are copies of texts from Hebrew scriptures. Approximately 30% are texts from the Second Temple period that ultimately were not canonized in the Hebrew Bible, such as the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Book of Tobit, the Wisdom of Sirach, Psalms 152–155, etc. The remainder (roughly 30%) are sectarian manuscripts of previously unknown documents that shed light on the rules and beliefs of a particular sect or groups within greater Judaism, such as the Community Rule, the War Scroll, the Pesher on Habakkuk, and The Rule of the Blessing.

Infobox

Material
Parchment, papyrus, and copper
Writing
Mostly Hebrew, but also Aramaic and Greek at Qumran; Latin and Arabic elsewhere
Created
c. 3rd century BCE – 1st century CE (Qumran)
Discovered
1946/1947–1956
Place
Qumran Caves near Ein Feshkha Other Judaean Desert sites
Present location
Israel Museum, JerusalemJordan Museum, Amman
Period
Second Temple period
Culture
Jewish

Tables

· Caves and their contents
"Tefillin from Qumran"
"Tefillin from Qumran"
Fragment/Scroll #
XQ1-3
Fragment/Scroll Name
"Tefillin from Qumran"
KJV Bible Association
Deuteronomy 5:1–6:3; 10:12–11:12.
Description
First published in 1969; Phylacteries
"Tefillin from Qumran"
"Tefillin from Qumran"
Fragment/Scroll #
XQ4
Fragment/Scroll Name
"Tefillin from Qumran"
Description
Phylacteries
Jubilees 7:4–5
Jubilees 7:4–5
Fragment/Scroll #
XQ5a
Fragment/Scroll Name
Jubilees 7:4–5
Hymn
Hymn
Fragment/Scroll #
XQ5b
Fragment/Scroll Name
Hymn
Offering
Offering
Fragment/Scroll #
XQ6
Fragment/Scroll Name
Offering
Description
Small fragment with only one word in Aramaic.
Unidentified fragment
Unidentified fragment
Fragment/Scroll #
XQ7
Fragment/Scroll Name
Unidentified fragment
Description
Strong possibility that it is part of 4QInstruction.
Book of Enoch 9:1
Book of Enoch 9:1
Fragment/Scroll #
XQpapEn
Fragment/Scroll Name
Book of Enoch 9:1
Description
One small fragment written in Hebrew. = XQ8
Fragment/Scroll #
Fragment/Scroll Name
KJV Bible Association
Description
XQ1-3
"Tefillin from Qumran"
Deuteronomy 5:1–6:3; 10:12–11:12.
First published in 1969; Phylacteries
XQ4
"Tefillin from Qumran"
Phylacteries
XQ5a
Jubilees 7:4–5
XQ5b
Hymn
XQ6
Offering
Small fragment with only one word in Aramaic.
XQ7
Unidentified fragment
Strong possibility that it is part of 4QInstruction.
XQpapEn
Book of Enoch 9:1
One small fragment written in Hebrew. = XQ8
· Scholarly examination
Hebrew
Hebrew
Language
Hebrew
Script
Assyrian block script
Percentage of documents
Estimated 76–79%
Centuries of known use
3rd century BCE to present
Hebrew
Hebrew
Language
Hebrew
Script
Cryptic scripts "A" "B" and "C"
Percentage of documents
Estimated 0.9–1.0%
Centuries of known use
Unknown
Biblical Hebrew
Biblical Hebrew
Language
Biblical Hebrew
Script
Paleo-Hebrew script
Percentage of documents
Estimated 1.0–1.5%
Centuries of known use
10th century BCE to the 2nd century CE
Biblical Hebrew
Biblical Hebrew
Language
Biblical Hebrew
Script
Paleo-Hebrew scribal script
Aramaic
Aramaic
Language
Aramaic
Script
Aramaic square script
Percentage of documents
Estimated 16–17%
Centuries of known use
8th century BCE to present
Greek
Greek
Language
Greek
Script
Greek uncial script
Percentage of documents
Estimated 3%
Centuries of known use
3rd century BCE to 8th century CE
Nabataean
Nabataean
Language
Nabataean
Script
Nabataean script
Percentage of documents
Estimated 0.2%
Centuries of known use
2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE
Language
Script
Percentage of documents
Centuries of known use
Hebrew
Assyrian block script
Estimated 76–79%
3rd century BCE to present
Hebrew
Cryptic scripts "A B" and "C"
Estimated 0.9–1.0%
Unknown
Biblical Hebrew
Paleo-Hebrew script
Estimated 1.0–1.5%
10th century BCE to the 2nd century CE
Biblical Hebrew
Paleo-Hebrew scribal script
Aramaic
Aramaic square script
Estimated 16–17%
8th century BCE to present
Greek
Greek uncial script
Estimated 3%
3rd century BCE to 8th century CE
Nabataean
Nabataean script
Estimated 0.2%
2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE
· Biblical significance › Biblical books found
Psalms
Psalms
Book
Psalms
Number found
39
Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy
Book
Deuteronomy
Number found
33
1 Enoch
1 Enoch
Book
1 Enoch
Number found
25
Genesis
Genesis
Book
Genesis
Number found
24
Isaiah
Isaiah
Book
Isaiah
Number found
22
Jubilees
Jubilees
Book
Jubilees
Number found
21
Exodus
Exodus
Book
Exodus
Number found
18
Leviticus
Leviticus
Book
Leviticus
Number found
17
Numbers
Numbers
Book
Numbers
Number found
11
Minor Prophets
Minor Prophets
Book
Minor Prophets
Number found
10
Daniel
Daniel
Book
Daniel
Number found
8
Jeremiah
Jeremiah
Book
Jeremiah
Number found
6
Ezekiel
Ezekiel
Book
Ezekiel
Number found
6
Job
Job
Book
Job
Number found
6
Tobit
Tobit
Book
Tobit
Number found
5
Kings
Kings
Book
Kings
Number found
4
Samuel
Samuel
Book
Samuel
Number found
4
Judges
Judges
Book
Judges
Number found
4
Song of Songs (Canticles)
Song of Songs (Canticles)
Book
Song of Songs (Canticles)
Number found
4
Ruth
Ruth
Book
Ruth
Number found
4
Lamentations
Lamentations
Book
Lamentations
Number found
4
Sirach
Sirach
Book
Sirach
Number found
3
Ecclesiastes
Ecclesiastes
Book
Ecclesiastes
Number found
2
Joshua
Joshua
Book
Joshua
Number found
2
Book
Number found
Psalms
39
Deuteronomy
33
1 Enoch
25
Genesis
24
Isaiah
22
Jubilees
21
Exodus
18
Leviticus
17
Numbers
11
Minor Prophets
10
Daniel
8
Jeremiah
6
Ezekiel
6
Job
6
Tobit
5
Kings
4
Samuel
4
Judges
4
Song of Songs (Canticles)
4
Ruth
4
Lamentations
4
Sirach
3
Ecclesiastes
2
Joshua
2
· Ownership
Jordan
Jordan
Parties involved
Jordan
Party role
Disputant; minority owner
Explanation of role
Alleges that the Dead Sea Scrolls were stolen from the Palestine Archaeological Museum (now the Rockefeller Museum) operated by Jordan from 1966 until the Six-Day War when advancing Israeli forces took control of the museum, and that therefore they fall under the rules of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict. Jordan regularly demands their return and petitions third-party countries that host the scrolls to return them to Jordan instead of to Israel, claiming they have legal documents that prove Jordanian ownership of the scrolls.
Israel
Israel
Parties involved
Israel
Party role
Disputant; current majority holder
Explanation of role
After the Six-Day War Israel seized the scrolls and moved them to the Shrine of the Book in the Israel Museum. Israel disputes Jordan's claim and states that Jordan never lawfully possessed the scrolls since it was an unlawful occupier of the museum and region.
Palestine
Palestine
Parties involved
Palestine
Party role
Disputant
Explanation of role
The Palestinian Authority also claims ownership of the scrolls.
Parties involved
Party role
Explanation of role
Jordan
Disputant; minority owner
Alleges that the Dead Sea Scrolls were stolen from the Palestine Archaeological Museum (now the Rockefeller Museum) operated by Jordan from 1966 until the Six-Day War when advancing Israeli forces took control of the museum, and that therefore they fall under the rules of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict. Jordan regularly demands their return and petitions third-party countries that host the scrolls to return them to Jordan instead of to Israel, claiming they have legal documents that prove Jordanian ownership of the scrolls.
Israel
Disputant; current majority holder
After the Six-Day War Israel seized the scrolls and moved them to the Shrine of the Book in the Israel Museum. Israel disputes Jordan's claim and states that Jordan never lawfully possessed the scrolls since it was an unlawful occupier of the museum and region.
Palestine
Disputant
The Palestinian Authority also claims ownership of the scrolls.
List of claimed private ownerships of Dead Sea Scroll fragments · Ownership › Forgeries and claimed private ownership
Azusa Pacific University
Azusa Pacific University
Claimed Owner
Azusa Pacific University
Year acquired
2009
Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned
5
Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures Museum (previously Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago)
Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures Museum (previously Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago)
Claimed Owner
Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures Museum (previously Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago)
Year acquired
1956
Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned
1
Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary
Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary
Claimed Owner
Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary
Year acquired
2009; 2010; 2012
Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned
8
Israel Museum – Government of Israel
Israel Museum – Government of Israel
Claimed Owner
Israel Museum – Government of Israel
Year acquired
1967
Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned
> 15,000
The Schøyen Collection owned by Martin Schøyen
The Schøyen Collection owned by Martin Schøyen
Claimed Owner
The Schøyen Collection owned by Martin Schøyen
Year acquired
1980; 1994; 1995
Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned
115
The Jordan Museum – Government of Jordan
The Jordan Museum – Government of Jordan
Claimed Owner
The Jordan Museum – Government of Jordan
Year acquired
1947–1956
Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned
> 25
Syrian Orthodox Church's eastern U.S. archdiocese
Syrian Orthodox Church's eastern U.S. archdiocese
Claimed Owner
Syrian Orthodox Church's eastern U.S. archdiocese
Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned
1
Ashland Theological Seminary
Ashland Theological Seminary
Claimed Owner
Ashland Theological Seminary
Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned
1
Lanier Theological Library
Lanier Theological Library
Claimed Owner
Lanier Theological Library
Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned
1
Pasadena Private Collection
Pasadena Private Collection
Claimed Owner
Pasadena Private Collection
Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned
1
Claimed Owner
Year acquired
Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned
Azusa Pacific University
2009
5
Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures Museum (previously Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago)
1956
1
Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary
2009; 2010; 2012
8
Israel Museum – Government of Israel
1967
> 15,000
The Schøyen Collection owned by Martin Schøyen
1980; 1994; 1995
115
The Jordan Museum – Government of Jordan
1947–1956
> 25
Syrian Orthodox Church's eastern U.S. archdiocese
1
Ashland Theological Seminary
1
Lanier Theological Library
1
Pasadena Private Collection
1

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