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Criticism of the Book of Abraham

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Criticism of the Book of Abraham

The Book of Abraham is a work produced sometime between 1835 and 1842 by the Latter Day Saints (LDS) movement founder Joseph Smith that he said was based on Egyptian papyri purchased from a traveling mummy exhibition. According to Smith, the book was "a translation of some ancient records ... purporting to be the writings of Abraham, while he was in Egypt, called the Book of Abraham, written by his own hand, upon papyrus". The work was first published in 1842 and today is a canonical part of the Pearl of Great Price. Since its printing, the Book of Abraham has been a source of controversy. Many non-LDS Egyptologists, beginning in the mid-19th century, have criticized Joseph Smith's translation and explanations of the facsimiles, unanimously concluding that his interpretations are inaccurate. They have also asserted that missing portions of two of the facsimiles were reconstructed incorrectly by Smith. The controversy intensified in the late 1960s when portions of the Joseph Smith Papyri were located. Translations of the papyri revealed that the rediscovered portions bore no relation to the text of the Book of Abraham. Latter-day Saint scholar and apologist Hugh Nibley and Brigham Young University Egyptologists John L. Gee and Michael D. Rhodes subsequently offered detailed rebuttals to some criticisms. University of Chicago Egyptologist Robert K. Ritner concluded in 2014 that the source of the Book of Abraham "is the 'Breathing Permit of Hôr,' misunderstood and mistranslated by Joseph Smith." He later said the Book of Abraham is now "confirmed as a perhaps well-meaning, but erroneous invention by Joseph Smith," and "despite its inauthenticity as a genuine historical narrative, the Book of Abraham remains a valuable witness to early American religious history and to the recourse to ancient texts as sources of modern religious faith and speculation." The Book of Abraham is not accepted as a historical document by non-Latter-day Saint scholars and by some Latter-day Saint scholars. Even the existence of the patriarch Abraham in the Biblical narrative is questioned by some researchers. Various anachronisms and 19th-century themes lead many scholars to conclude that the Book of Abraham is a 19th-century creation.

Tables

Source material for the Book of Abraham · Background › Analysis and translation of the papyrus by Egyptologists › Sources
Joseph Smith Papyri (JSP): I (source of Facsimile No. 1), part of IV, X, XI
Joseph Smith Papyri (JSP): I (source of Facsimile No. 1), part of IV, X, XI
Fragment no.
Joseph Smith Papyri (JSP): I (source of Facsimile No. 1), part of IV, X, XI
Egyptian source
"Book of Breathing", papyrus of Hôr
Composition date
c. 150 BC
Status
Owned by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
JSP: II, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX
JSP: II, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX
Fragment no.
JSP: II, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX
Egyptian source
"Book of the Dead", papyrus of Ta-sherit-Min
Composition date
After 500 BC
Status
Owned by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
JSP: III a–b
JSP: III a–b
Fragment no.
JSP: III a–b
Egyptian source
"Book of the Dead", papyrus of Nefer-ir-nebu
Composition date
After 500 BC
Status
Owned by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Source of Facsimile No. 2
Source of Facsimile No. 2
Fragment no.
Source of Facsimile No. 2
Egyptian source
Hypocephalus of Sheshonq
Composition date
Unknown
Status
Presumed lost in the Great Chicago Fire; reproduction of the Hypocephalus of Sheshonq included in the Kirtland Egyptian papers
Source of Facsimile No. 3
Source of Facsimile No. 3
Fragment no.
Source of Facsimile No. 3
Egyptian source
"Book of Breathing", papyrus of Hôr
Composition date
c. 150 BC
Status
Presumed lost in the Great Chicago Fire
Fragment no.
Egyptian source
Composition date
Status
Joseph Smith Papyri (JSP): I (source of Facsimile No. 1), part of IV, X, XI
"Book of Breathing", papyrus of Hôr
c. 150 BC
Owned by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
JSP: II, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX
"Book of the Dead", papyrus of Ta-sherit-Min
After 500 BC
Owned by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
JSP: III a–b
"Book of the Dead", papyrus of Nefer-ir-nebu
After 500 BC
Owned by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Source of Facsimile No. 2
Hypocephalus of Sheshonq
Unknown
Presumed lost in the Great Chicago Fire; reproduction of the Hypocephalus of Sheshonq included in the Kirtland Egyptian papers
Source of Facsimile No. 3
"Book of Breathing", papyrus of Hôr
c. 150 BC
Presumed lost in the Great Chicago Fire
Assessment of Facsimile No. 1 · Manuscript-based criticism › The facsimiles › Facsimile No. 1
1
1
Figure
1
Joseph Smith's explanation
The Angel of the Lord.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"The ba-spirit Osiris, miscopied with the head of a bird rather than that of a human"
2
2
Figure
2
Joseph Smith's explanation
Abraham fastened upon an altar.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"The prone image of Osiris"
3
3
Figure
3
Joseph Smith's explanation
The idolatrous priest of Elkenah attempting to offer up Abraham as a sacrifice.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"The jackal-headed Anubis, god of mummification, extending his hand to ensure the resurrection of the mummy of the deceased Osiris ... Although most of Anubis' head is now missing, the back of his wig still appears above his shoulder and his dark skin is evident"
4
4
Figure
4
Joseph Smith's explanation
The altar for sacrifice by the idolatrous priests, standing before the gods of Elkenah, Libnah, Mahmackrah, Korash, and Pharaoh.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"the customary lion-headed funerary bier"
5
5
Figure
5
Joseph Smith's explanation
The idolatrous god of Elkenah.
Explanation by Egyptologists
One of "the four 'canopic jars' [representing] falcon-headed Qebehsenuf, protector of the intestines"
6
6
Figure
6
Joseph Smith's explanation
The idolatrous god of Libnah.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"One of "the four 'canopic jars' [representing] jackal-headed Duamutef, protector of the stomach"
7
7
Figure
7
Joseph Smith's explanation
The idolatrous god of Mahmackrah.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"One of "the four 'canopic jars' [representing] baboon-headed Hapy, protector of the lungs"
8
8
Figure
8
Joseph Smith's explanation
The idolatrous god of Korash.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"One of "the four 'canopic jars' [representing] human-headed Imsety, protector of the liver"
9
9
Figure
9
Joseph Smith's explanation
The idolatrous god of Pharaoh.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"The crocodile who aided in the collection of the dismembered limbs of Osiris"
10
10
Figure
10
Joseph Smith's explanation
Abraham in Egypt.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"A typical offering stand with a spouted vessel and Nile water lily flowers"
11
11
Figure
11
Joseph Smith's explanation
Designed to represent the pillars of heaven, as understood by the Egyptians.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"A 'niched-brick' facade, originally an architectural feature ... that became an artistic convention for the decoration of the dado of sacred wall scenes"
12
12
Figure
12
Joseph Smith's explanation
Raukeeyang signifying expanse, or the firmament over our heads; but in this case, in relation to this subject, the Egyptians meant it to signify Shaumau, to be high, or the heavens, answering to the Hebrew word, Shaumahyeem.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"A stream of Nile water (show by hatched lines)"; "The word Shauman [sic] is not Egyptian, and the Hebrew word שָׁמַ֫יִם [i.e. shamayim] is badly copied)"
Figure
Joseph Smith's explanation
Explanation by Egyptologists
1
The Angel of the Lord.
"The ba-spirit Osiris, miscopied with the head of a bird rather than that of a human"
2
Abraham fastened upon an altar.
"The prone image of Osiris"
3
The idolatrous priest of Elkenah attempting to offer up Abraham as a sacrifice.
"The jackal-headed Anubis, god of mummification, extending his hand to ensure the resurrection of the mummy of the deceased Osiris ... Although most of Anubis' head is now missing, the back of his wig still appears above his shoulder and his dark skin is evident"
4
The altar for sacrifice by the idolatrous priests, standing before the gods of Elkenah, Libnah, Mahmackrah, Korash, and Pharaoh.
"the customary lion-headed funerary bier"
5
The idolatrous god of Elkenah.
One of "the four 'canopic jars' [representing] falcon-headed Qebehsenuf, protector of the intestines"
6
The idolatrous god of Libnah.
"One of "the four 'canopic jars' [representing] jackal-headed Duamutef, protector of the stomach"
7
The idolatrous god of Mahmackrah.
"One of "the four 'canopic jars' [representing] baboon-headed Hapy, protector of the lungs"
8
The idolatrous god of Korash.
"One of "the four 'canopic jars' [representing] human-headed Imsety, protector of the liver"
9
The idolatrous god of Pharaoh.
"The crocodile who aided in the collection of the dismembered limbs of Osiris"
10
Abraham in Egypt.
"A typical offering stand with a spouted vessel and Nile water lily flowers"
11
Designed to represent the pillars of heaven, as understood by the Egyptians.
"A 'niched-brick' facade, originally an architectural feature ... that became an artistic convention for the decoration of the dado of sacred wall scenes"
12
Raukeeyang signifying expanse, or the firmament over our heads; but in this case, in relation to this subject, the Egyptians meant it to signify Shaumau, to be high, or the heavens, answering to the Hebrew word, Shaumahyeem.
"A stream of Nile water (show by hatched lines)"; "The word Shauman [sic] is not Egyptian, and the Hebrew word שָׁמַ֫יִם [i.e. shamayim] is badly copied)"
Assessment of Facsimile No. 2 · Manuscript-based criticism › The facsimiles › Facsimile No. 2
1
1
Figure
1
Joseph Smith's explanation
Kolob, signifying the first creation, nearest to the celestial, or the residence of God. First in government, the last pertaining to the measurement of time. The measurement according to celestial time, which celestial time signifies one day to a cubit. One day in Kolob is equal to a thousand years according to the measurement of this earth, which is called by the Egyptians Jah-oh-eh.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"In the center field, a seated figure of Re-Atum (originally with four ram heads and complex crown and scepters) is worshipped by two apes crowned with lunar disks ... Smith simply copied the heads and shoulders (with jackal extensions) of the double headed god in the upper register ... The equation of a day to a cubit is specious, and the Egyptian terms for earth do not include ... Jah-oh-eh"; "The word Jah-oh-eh has nothing Egyptian in it; it resembles the Hebrew word יהוה [i.e. the Tetragrammaton] badly transcribed."
2
2
Figure
2
Joseph Smith's explanation
Stands next to Kolob, called by the Egyptians Oliblish, which is the next grand governing creation near to the celestial or the place where God resides; holding the key of power also, pertaining to other planets; as revealed from God to Abraham, as he offered sacrifice upon an altar, which he had built unto the Lord.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"A two-headed deity strides with the standard of the god Wepwawet ... The god wears a crown of double-plumes and sun-disk over horizontal horns, and jackal heads protrude from both of his shoulders. [The images] to the right of this figure [and] the altar of Facsimile 2 [are] a fabrication by Smith. ... Smith's interpretation of the deity as being 'called by the Egyptians Oliblish' is nonsense".
3
3
Figure
3
Joseph Smith's explanation
Is made to represent God, sitting upon his throne, clothed with power and authority; with a crown of eternal light upon his head; representing also the grand Key-words of the Holy Priesthood, as revealed to Adam in the Garden of Eden, as also to Seth, Noah, Melchizedek, Abraham, and all to whom the Priesthood was revealed.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"The sun god Ra, with a hawk's head, seated in his boat. In the field the two symbolical figuring, according to M. de Rougé, the fixed points of an astronomical period."
4
4
Figure
4
Joseph Smith's explanation
Answers to the Hebrew word Raukeeyang, signifying expanse, or the firmament of the heavens; also a numerical figure, in Egyptian signifying one thousand; answering to the measuring of the time of Oliblish, which is equal with Kolob in its revolution and in its measuring of time.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"A standard image of the mummiform god Sokar in his barque"; "The Hebrew word רָקִיעַ, [i.e. raqiya, the firmament], besides being badly described, has no relation whatever to this figure".
5
5
Figure
5
Joseph Smith's explanation
Is called in Egyptian Enish-go-on-dosh; this is one of the governing planets also, and is said by the Egyptians to be the Sun, and to borrow its light from Kolob through the medium of Kae-e-vanrash, which is the grand Key, or, in other words, the governing power, which governs fifteen other fixed planets or stars, as also Floeese or the Moon, the Earth and the Sun in their annual revolutions. This planet receives its power through the medium of Kli-flos-is-es, or Hah-ko-kau-beam".
Explanation by Egyptologists
"Hathor [the] heavenly cow strides in the center, followed by a goddess whose head is a disk with the Wedjat-Eye and who extends a water lily."
6
6
Figure
6
Joseph Smith's explanation
Represents this earth in its four quarters.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"Before the Hathor cow stand the mummiform sons of Horus [i.e. Amset, Hapi, Tioumautew, and Kebhsoniw] and a trigram for the sun god in his three manifestations".
7
7
Figure
7
Joseph Smith's explanation
Represents God sitting upon his throne, revealing through the heavens the grand Key-words of the Priesthood; as, also, the sign of the Holy Ghost unto Abraham, in the form of a dove.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"Behind (and facing away from) Hathor and the goddess appears the enthroned and ithyphallic Min-Amon, in half human and half bird form, raising his arm with a flabellum. The ithyphallic serpent deity Nehebkau stands before Min-Amon, offering the Wedjat-Eye."
8
8
Figure
8
Joseph Smith's explanation
Contains writings that cannot be revealed unto the world; but is to be had in the Holy Temple of God.
Explanation by Egyptologists
Text reading: "O noble god from the beginning of time, great god, lord of heaven, earth, underworld, waters [and mountains], cause the ba-spirit of the Osiris Sheshonq to live."
9
9
Figure
9
Joseph Smith's explanation
Ought not to be revealed at the present time.
10
10
Figure
10
Joseph Smith's explanation
Also.
11
11
Figure
11
Joseph Smith's explanation
Also. If the world can find out these numbers, so let it be. Amen.
12
12
Figure
12
Joseph Smith's explanation
Will be given in the own due time of the Lord.
Explanation by Egyptologists
Upside down Hieratic text reading: "near" and "wrap"
13
13
Figure
13
Joseph Smith's explanation
Upside down Hieratic text reading: "which made by"
14
14
Figure
14
Joseph Smith's explanation
Upside down Hieratic text reading: "breathings"
15
15
Figure
15
Joseph Smith's explanation
Upside down Hieratic text reading: "this book"; hieroglyphic text reading, "his words"
16, 17
16, 17
Figure
16, 17
Joseph Smith's explanation
Text reading: "May this tomb never be desecrated, and may this soul and its lord never be desecrated in the hereafter."
19, 20, and 21
19, 20, and 21
Figure
19, 20, and 21
Joseph Smith's explanation
Text reading: "You shall be as that god, the Busirian."
22, 23
22, 23
Figure
22, 23
Joseph Smith's explanation
"Kli-flos-is-es [and] Hah-ko-kau-beam [which are] stars [that receive] light from the revolutions of Kolob."
Explanation by Egyptologists
"Two apes ... with horned moon-disks on their heads, in an attitude of adoration."
Conclusion
Conclusion
Figure
Conclusion
Joseph Smith's explanation
The above translation is given as far as we have any right to give at the present time.
Explanation by Egyptologists
"It is evident to me that several of the figures to be found in these various MSS. have been intentionally altered."
Figure
Joseph Smith's explanation
Explanation by Egyptologists
1
Kolob, signifying the first creation, nearest to the celestial, or the residence of God. First in government, the last pertaining to the measurement of time. The measurement according to celestial time, which celestial time signifies one day to a cubit. One day in Kolob is equal to a thousand years according to the measurement of this earth, which is called by the Egyptians Jah-oh-eh.
"In the center field, a seated figure of Re-Atum (originally with four ram heads and complex crown and scepters) is worshipped by two apes crowned with lunar disks ... Smith simply copied the heads and shoulders (with jackal extensions) of the double headed god in the upper register ... The equation of a day to a cubit is specious, and the Egyptian terms for earth do not include ... Jah-oh-eh"; "The word Jah-oh-eh has nothing Egyptian in it; it resembles the Hebrew word יהוה [i.e. the Tetragrammaton] badly transcribed."
2
Stands next to Kolob, called by the Egyptians Oliblish, which is the next grand governing creation near to the celestial or the place where God resides; holding the key of power also, pertaining to other planets; as revealed from God to Abraham, as he offered sacrifice upon an altar, which he had built unto the Lord.
"A two-headed deity strides with the standard of the god Wepwawet ... The god wears a crown of double-plumes and sun-disk over horizontal horns, and jackal heads protrude from both of his shoulders. [The images] to the right of this figure [and] the altar of Facsimile 2 [are] a fabrication by Smith. ... Smith's interpretation of the deity as being 'called by the Egyptians Oliblish' is nonsense".
3
Is made to represent God, sitting upon his throne, clothed with power and authority; with a crown of eternal light upon his head; representing also the grand Key-words of the Holy Priesthood, as revealed to Adam in the Garden of Eden, as also to Seth, Noah, Melchizedek, Abraham, and all to whom the Priesthood was revealed.
"The sun god Ra, with a hawk's head, seated in his boat. In the field the two symbolical figuring, according to M. de Rougé, the fixed points of an astronomical period."
4
Answers to the Hebrew word Raukeeyang, signifying expanse, or the firmament of the heavens; also a numerical figure, in Egyptian signifying one thousand; answering to the measuring of the time of Oliblish, which is equal with Kolob in its revolution and in its measuring of time.
"A standard image of the mummiform god Sokar in his barque"; "The Hebrew word רָקִיעַ, [i.e. raqiya, the firmament], besides being badly described, has no relation whatever to this figure".
5
Is called in Egyptian Enish-go-on-dosh; this is one of the governing planets also, and is said by the Egyptians to be the Sun, and to borrow its light from Kolob through the medium of Kae-e-vanrash, which is the grand Key, or, in other words, the governing power, which governs fifteen other fixed planets or stars, as also Floeese or the Moon, the Earth and the Sun in their annual revolutions. This planet receives its power through the medium of Kli-flos-is-es, or Hah-ko-kau-beam".
"Hathor [the] heavenly cow strides in the center, followed by a goddess whose head is a disk with the Wedjat-Eye and who extends a water lily."
6
Represents this earth in its four quarters.
"Before the Hathor cow stand the mummiform sons of Horus [i.e. Amset, Hapi, Tioumautew, and Kebhsoniw] and a trigram for the sun god in his three manifestations".
7
Represents God sitting upon his throne, revealing through the heavens the grand Key-words of the Priesthood; as, also, the sign of the Holy Ghost unto Abraham, in the form of a dove.
"Behind (and facing away from) Hathor and the goddess appears the enthroned and ithyphallic Min-Amon, in half human and half bird form, raising his arm with a flabellum. The ithyphallic serpent deity Nehebkau stands before Min-Amon, offering the Wedjat-Eye."
8
Contains writings that cannot be revealed unto the world; but is to be had in the Holy Temple of God.
Text reading: "O noble god from the beginning of time, great god, lord of heaven, earth, underworld, waters [and mountains], cause the ba-spirit of the Osiris Sheshonq to live."
9
Ought not to be revealed at the present time.
10
Also.
11
Also. If the world can find out these numbers, so let it be. Amen.
12
Will be given in the own due time of the Lord.
Upside down Hieratic text reading: "near" and "wrap"
13
Upside down Hieratic text reading: "which made by"
14
Upside down Hieratic text reading: "breathings"
15
Upside down Hieratic text reading: "this book"; hieroglyphic text reading, "his words"
16, 17
Text reading: "May this tomb never be desecrated, and may this soul and its lord never be desecrated in the hereafter."
18
Text reading: "I am the punisher in the Mansion of the Benben in Heliopolis, greatly exalted, greatly [effective], the copulating bull who has no equal, this great god in the Mansion of the Benben in Heliopolis, ... Come to the Osiris Shesonq, the justified son of ... He is that great god in the House of the Noble."
19, 20, and 21
Text reading: "You shall be as that god, the Busirian."
22, 23
"Kli-flos-is-es [and] Hah-ko-kau-beam [which are] stars [that receive] light from the revolutions of Kolob."
"Two apes ... with horned moon-disks on their heads, in an attitude of adoration."
Conclusion
The above translation is given as far as we have any right to give at the present time.
"It is evident to me that several of the figures to be found in these various MSS. have been intentionally altered."
Assessment of Facsimile No. 3 · Manuscript-based criticism › The facsimiles › Facsimile No. 3
General Comment
General Comment
Figure
General Comment
Joseph Smith's explanation
Abraham is reasoning upon the principles of Astronomy, in the king's court.
Egyptological explanation
"Invocation (text at bottom line below the illustration): O gods of the necropolis, gods of the caverns, gods of the south, north, west, and east grant salvation to the Osiris Hor, the justified, born by Taikhibit."
1
1
Figure
1
Joseph Smith's explanation
Abraham sitting upon Pharaoh's throne, by the politeness of the king, with a crown upon his head, representing the Priesthood, as emblematical of the grand Presidency in Heaven; with the scepter of justice and judgment in his hand.
Egyptological explanation
"Label for Osiris (text to the right of figure 1 of Facsimile No. 3): Recitation by Osiris, Foremost of the Westerners, Lord of Abydos(?), the great god forever and ever(?)."
2
2
Figure
2
Joseph Smith's explanation
King Pharaoh, whose name is given in the characters above his head.
Egyptological explanation
"Label for Isis (text to the right of figure 2 of Facsimile No. 3): Isis the great, the god's mother."
3
3
Figure
3
Joseph Smith's explanation
Signifies Abraham in Egypt as given also in figure 10 of Facsimile No. 1.
Egyptological explanation
"Altar, with the offering of the deceased, surrounded with lotus flowers, signifying the offering of the defunct."
4
4
Figure
4
Joseph Smith's explanation
Prince of Pharaoh, King of Egypt, as written above the hand.
Egyptological explanation
"Label for Maat (text to the left of figure 4 of Facsimile No. 3): Maat, mistress of the gods."
5
5
Figure
5
Joseph Smith's explanation
Shulem, one of the king's principal waiters, as represented by the characters above his hand.
Egyptological explanation
"Label for Hor the deceased (text in front of figure 5 of Facsimile No. 3): The Osiris Hor, justified forever."
6
6
Figure
6
Joseph Smith's explanation
Olimlah, a slave belonging to the prince.
Egyptological explanation
"Label for Anubis (text in front of figure 6 of Facsimile No. 3): Recitation by Anubis, who makes protection(?), foremost of the embalming booth ..."
Figure
Joseph Smith's explanation
Egyptological explanation
General Comment
Abraham is reasoning upon the principles of Astronomy, in the king's court.
"Invocation (text at bottom line below the illustration): O gods of the necropolis, gods of the caverns, gods of the south, north, west, and east grant salvation to the Osiris Hor, the justified, born by Taikhibit."
1
Abraham sitting upon Pharaoh's throne, by the politeness of the king, with a crown upon his head, representing the Priesthood, as emblematical of the grand Presidency in Heaven; with the scepter of justice and judgment in his hand.
"Label for Osiris (text to the right of figure 1 of Facsimile No. 3): Recitation by Osiris, Foremost of the Westerners, Lord of Abydos(?), the great god forever and ever(?)."
2
King Pharaoh, whose name is given in the characters above his head.
"Label for Isis (text to the right of figure 2 of Facsimile No. 3): Isis the great, the god's mother."
3
Signifies Abraham in Egypt as given also in figure 10 of Facsimile No. 1.
"Altar, with the offering of the deceased, surrounded with lotus flowers, signifying the offering of the defunct."
4
Prince of Pharaoh, King of Egypt, as written above the hand.
"Label for Maat (text to the left of figure 4 of Facsimile No. 3): Maat, mistress of the gods."
5
Shulem, one of the king's principal waiters, as represented by the characters above his hand.
"Label for Hor the deceased (text in front of figure 5 of Facsimile No. 3): The Osiris Hor, justified forever."
6
Olimlah, a slave belonging to the prince.
"Label for Anubis (text in front of figure 6 of Facsimile No. 3): Recitation by Anubis, who makes protection(?), foremost of the embalming booth ..."
Example where Book of Abraham shows literary dependency on two different late Judean sources · Literary dependence › King James Version of the Bible
"These are the generations of the heavens and of the earth when they were created.
"These are the generations of the heavens and of the earth when they were created.
Priestly Source
"These are the generations of the heavens and of the earth when they were created.
Jahwist Source
"In the day that the LORD God made the earth and the heavens."
KJV Genesis 2:4
"These are the generations of the heavens and of the earth when they were created, in the day that the LORD God made the earth and the heavens."
Abraham 5:4
"And the Gods came down and formed these the generations of the heavens and of the earth, when they were formed in the day that the Gods formed the earth and the heavens."
Priestly Source
Jahwist Source
KJV Genesis 2:4
Abraham 5:4
"These are the generations of the heavens and of the earth when they were created.
"In the day that the LORD God made the earth and the heavens."
"These are the generations of the heavens and of the earth when they were created, in the day that the LORD God made the earth and the heavens."
"And the Gods came down and formed these the generations of the heavens and of the earth, when they were formed in the day that the Gods formed the earth and the heavens."
Hebrew words found in the Book of Abraham · Literary dependence › Hebrew studies
Gnolaum
Gnolaum
Word
Gnolaum
Location
Abraham 3:18
Book of Abraham explanation
"eternal"
Commentary
Is Hebrew for "eternity" (נֵצַח). The spelling reflects Seixas' unique transliteration rules. An extant 1842 manuscript shows the word was initially "immortal" but was crossed out and replaced with "Gnolaum".
Hah-ko-kau-beam
Hah-ko-kau-beam
Word
Hah-ko-kau-beam
Location
Facsimile #2
Book of Abraham explanation
name of a star
Commentary
Is Hebrew for "the stars" (הכוכבים), with the article "the" and plural. The spelling reflects Seixas unique transliteration rules.
Jah-oh-eh
Jah-oh-eh
Word
Jah-oh-eh
Location
Facsimile #2
Book of Abraham explanation
Egyptian for "measurement of the earth"
Commentary
A 19th century criticism was that the word resembled the Hebrew word יהוה [Jehovah]. Modern scholars find this unlikely and a weak connection to Hebrew.
Kokaubeam
Kokaubeam
Word
Kokaubeam
Location
Abraham 3:13
Book of Abraham explanation
"stars, or all the great lights"
Commentary
Is Hebrew for "stars" (כוכבים), without the article "the" and plural. The spelling reflects Seixas unique transliteration rules.
Kokob
Kokob
Word
Kokob
Location
Abraham 3:13
Book of Abraham explanation
"star"
Commentary
Is Hebrew for "star" (כוכב), without the article "the" and singular. The spelling is standard, and appears in the Gesenius lexicon.
Kolob
Kolob
Word
Kolob
Location
Facsimile #2, Abraham 3:2–16
Book of Abraham explanation
"nearest unto the throne of God"
Commentary
Some scholars have suggested that the Hebrew verb קָרֵב (QRB) "to draw near" is a form of KLB [Kolob].
Libnah
Libnah
Word
Libnah
Location
Facsimile #1, Abraham 1:6-17
Book of Abraham explanation
Name of Egyptian God
Commentary
Several scholars have suggested that Smith could have obtained this from the words Laban לָבָן (white) or l'banah לְבָנָה (moon). Matthew Grey disagrees, pointing out that in the earliest Book of Abraham manuscripts, the word was originally translated as Zibnah.
Raukeeyang, Shaumau and Shaumahyeem
Raukeeyang, Shaumau and Shaumahyeem
Word
Raukeeyang, Shaumau and Shaumahyeem
Location
Facsimile #1
Book of Abraham explanation
In reference to the hatched lines (Nile river) "Raukeeyang, signifying expanse, or the firmament over our heads; but in this case, in relation to this subject, the Egyptians meant it to signify Shaumau, to be high, or the heavens, answering to the Hebrew word, Shaumahyeem." The bottom decoration of the facsimile is described as being "Designed to represent the pillars of heaven, as understood by the Egyptians."
Commentary
Raukeeyang (רָקִיעַ) is interpreted firmament, but is translated as expanse in Seixas' manuals, following a movement in the early 19th century to change the translation to be more scientific. The spelling of Raukeeyang utilizes Seixas' unique transliteration system. Shaumahyeem (שמים) is a plural word for heavens that also closely follows Seixas grammar. The word Shaumau is unattested in either Egyptian or Hebrew, but does appear in a Hebrew lexicon Smith seems to have had access to. In the lexicon, Shaumau is glossed as being the singular form of Shaumauhyeem, which also means "to be high" in Arabic. The entry additionally refers to heaven as resting on pillars, similar to the description of the bottom decoration.
Word
Location
Book of Abraham explanation
Commentary
Gnolaum
Abraham 3:18
"eternal"
Is Hebrew for "eternity" (נֵצַח). The spelling reflects Seixas' unique transliteration rules. An extant 1842 manuscript shows the word was initially "immortal" but was crossed out and replaced with "Gnolaum".
Hah-ko-kau-beam
Facsimile
name of a star
Is Hebrew for "the stars" (הכוכבים), with the article "the" and plural. The spelling reflects Seixas unique transliteration rules.
Jah-oh-eh
Facsimile
Egyptian for "measurement of the earth"
A 19th century criticism was that the word resembled the Hebrew word יהוה [Jehovah]. Modern scholars find this unlikely and a weak connection to Hebrew.
Kokaubeam
Abraham 3:13
"stars, or all the great lights"
Is Hebrew for "stars" (כוכבים), without the article "the" and plural. The spelling reflects Seixas unique transliteration rules.
Kokob
Abraham 3:13
"star"
Is Hebrew for "star" (כוכב), without the article "the" and singular. The spelling is standard, and appears in the Gesenius lexicon.
Kolob
Facsimile , Abraham 3:2–16
"nearest unto the throne of God"
Some scholars have suggested that the Hebrew verb קָרֵב (QRB) "to draw near" is a form of KLB [Kolob].
Libnah
Facsimile , Abraham 1:6-17
Name of Egyptian God
Several scholars have suggested that Smith could have obtained this from the words Laban לָבָן (white) or l'banah לְבָנָה (moon). Matthew Grey disagrees, pointing out that in the earliest Book of Abraham manuscripts, the word was originally translated as Zibnah.
Raukeeyang, Shaumau and Shaumahyeem
Facsimile
In reference to the hatched lines (Nile river) "Raukeeyang, signifying expanse, or the firmament over our heads; but in this case, in relation to this subject, the Egyptians meant it to signify Shaumau, to be high, or the heavens, answering to the Hebrew word, Shaumahyeem." The bottom decoration of the facsimile is described as being "Designed to represent the pillars of heaven, as understood by the Egyptians."
Raukeeyang (רָקִיעַ) is interpreted firmament, but is translated as expanse in Seixas' manuals, following a movement in the early 19th century to change the translation to be more scientific. The spelling of Raukeeyang utilizes Seixas' unique transliteration system. Shaumahyeem (שמים) is a plural word for heavens that also closely follows Seixas grammar. The word Shaumau is unattested in either Egyptian or Hebrew, but does appear in a Hebrew lexicon Smith seems to have had access to. In the lexicon, Shaumau is glossed as being the singular form of Shaumauhyeem, which also means "to be high" in Arabic. The entry additionally refers to heaven as resting on pillars, similar to the description of the bottom decoration.
· Literary dependence › 1833 Patriarchal Blessing
I sought for the blessings of the father, and the right where unto I should be ordained to administer the same; having been myself a follower of righteousness, desiring also to be one who possessed great knowledge, and to be a greater follower of righteousness and to possess a greater knowledge ...
I sought for the blessings of the father, and the right where unto I should be ordained to administer the same; having been myself a follower of righteousness, desiring also to be one who possessed great knowledge, and to be a greater follower of righteousness and to possess a greater knowledge ...
Abraham 1:2
I sought for the blessings of the father, and the right where unto I should be ordained to administer the same; having been myself a follower of righteousness, desiring also to be one who possessed great knowledge, and to be a greater follower of righteousness and to possess a greater knowledge ...
Oliver Cowdery note
we diligently sought for the right of the fathers, and the authority of the Holy Priesthood, and the power to administer in the same; for we desired to be followers of righteousness and the possessors of greater knowledge, even the knowledge of the mysteries of the Kingdom of God.
Abraham 1:2
Oliver Cowdery note
I sought for the blessings of the father, and the right where unto I should be ordained to administer the same; having been myself a follower of righteousness, desiring also to be one who possessed great knowledge, and to be a greater follower of righteousness and to possess a greater knowledge ...
we diligently sought for the right of the fathers, and the authority of the Holy Priesthood, and the power to administer in the same; for we desired to be followers of righteousness and the possessors of greater knowledge, even the knowledge of the mysteries of the Kingdom of God.

References

  1. Facsimile No. 1 and Chapter 1 through chapter 2 verse 18 are to be found in Volume III, No. 9, dated March 1, 1842; Facs
  2. Stephen Thompson notes that at least "four anachronistic names [are found] in the text: Chaldea, Potiphar, Egyptus, and
  3. Whoever created the correlation often failed to properly determine where the Egyptian characters began or ended, as many
  4. Including: A. H. Sayce of Oxford University, W. M. Flinders Petrie of London University, James H. Breasted of the Univer
  5. The name "Hôr" is rendered in some sources as "Horus".
  6. Apologist Michael R. Ash has noted: "The late Klaus Baer, a non-LDS Egyptologist from the University of Chicago, claimed
  7. Rhodes says that "Baer's, Coenen and Quackenbur's assumption that the missing portion would show an erect phallus with a
  8. In Praeparatio evangelica 9.17.2–9, Eusebius quotes Pseudo-Eupolemus, and the text reads: "And Abraham dwelt with the Eg
  9. A document titled "List of works in Hebrew Greek Latin Syraic Arabic Chaldaee & English" is a c. 1836 document listing o
  10. Smith may also have been encouraged in the idea by several other Bible commentaries available at the time that argued th
  11. The word shinehah was included in the 1835 version of the Doctrine and Covenants as a code for Kirtland.
  12. Michael D. Rhodes admits that "we can, with the help of other similar texts, reconstruct the text and figures of the Jos
  13. Smith (1842), p. 704.
  14. A Response to 'Translation and Historicity of the Book of Abraham'
    https://archive.today/20170404222749/http://signaturebooks.com/a-response-to-translation-and-historicity-of-the-book-of-abraham-by-dr-robert-ritner/
  15. Moore & Kelle (2011), pp. 18–19.
  16. Gee (2000a), pp. 4–6.
  17. "The Book of Abraham"
    https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/abr/1?lang=eng
  18. Ritner (2013), p. 55.
  19. Ritner (2013), p. 61.
  20. Ritner (2013), p. 306.
  21. Ritner (2013), p. 326.
  22. Ritner (2013), p. 310.
  23. Chase (2014), p. 160.
  24. Abraham 1:1–4.
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Pearl_of_Great_Price/Abraham#1:1–4
  25. Abraham 3.
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Pearl_of_Great_Price/Abraham#chapter_3
  26. Abraham 2:10.
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Pearl_of_Great_Price/Abraham#2:10
  27. Abraham 3:18–28.
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Pearl_of_Great_Price/Abraham#3:18–28
  28. Abraham 4:1.
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Pearl_of_Great_Price/Abraham#4:1
  29. Ritner (2013), pp. 14–15.
  30. Ritner (2013), p. 1.
  31. Ritner (2013), p. 15.
  32. Ritner (2013), p. 2.
  33. Ritner (2013), p. 15–17.
  34. Vogel (2021), p. 19.
  35. Smith (1948), p. 238.
  36. Jessee (2002), p. 86.
  37. Ritner (2013), p. 18.
  38. Ritner (2013), pp. 19–21.
  39. Ritner (2013), p. 20.
  40. Ritner (2013), p. 21.
  41. Smith (1990), p. 169.
  42. Givens & Hauglid (2019), p. 140.
  43. Ritner (2013), pp. 19, 23–24, 31–32.
  44. Ritner (2013), p. 27.
  45. Smith (1842).
  46. Peterson (1995), p. 16.
  47. Ritner (2013), p. 64.
  48. Wade et al. (1967), p. 64.
  49. Barney (2006).
  50. Vogel (2021), pp. 64–65.
  51. Ritner (2013), pp. 65–66.
  52. Deseret News, Salt Lake City, November 27, 1967.
  53. Larson (1992), p. 54.
  54. Ritner (2013), p. 66.
  55. G (1968), p. 40.
  56. Todd (1968), pp. 39–46.
  57. Wilson et al. (1968), pp. 67–99.
  58. Baer (1968), pp. 109–54.
  59. Ritner (2000), p. 97.
  60. Rhodes (2005).
  61. Gee (1999).
  62. Ritner (2003).
  63. Larson (1992), p. 61.
  64. Reeve & Parshall (2010), p. 269.
  65. Ashment (2000), p. 126.
  66. Rhodes (2005), p. 1.
  67. Baer (1968), pp. 116–17.
  68. Wilson et al. (1968), p. 98.
  69. Baer (1968), p. 111.
  70. Wilson et al. (1968), pp. 95–96.
  71. Nibley (1975), p. 3.
  72. Rhodes (1988), pp. 51–53.
  73. Thompson (1995), pp. 152–56.
  74. The source of Joseph Smith's quotes cited here are found in Smith (1842), p. 704 and Smith (1990), p. 169, respectively.
  75. For fragments: I–XI, see: Ritner (2013), p. 65. For the sources of Facsimile No. 2 and 3, see: Ritner (2013), p. 66.
  76. For fragments: I–XI, see: Ritner (2013), p. 65. For the source of Facsimile No. 2, see: Ritner (2013), pp. 66, 263. For
  77. Ritner (2013), p. 65.
  78. Ritner (2013), pp. 61–66.
  79. Larson (1992), p. 66.
  80. Ashment (2000), pp. 121–22.
  81. Larson (1992), pp. 96–97.
  82. Wilson et al. (1968), p. 95.
  83. Larson (1992), pp. 129–34.
  84. Ritner (2013), p. 62.
  85. Larson (1992), p. 25.
  86. Larson (1992), p. 26.
  87. Deveria as quoted in Stenhouse (1873), pp. 510–19.
  88. Larson (1992), p. 27.
  89. Spaulding (1912), pp. 23–31.
  90. Spaulding (1912).
  91. Spaulding (1912), pp. 26–27.
  92. Spaulding (1912), p. 24.
  93. Spaulding (1912), p. 23.
  94. Larson (1992), p. 29.
  95. Webb (1915), pp. 30–31.
  96. Abraham 1:12.
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Pearl_of_Great_Price/Abraham#1:12
  97. Ritner (2013), p. 58.
  98. Wilson et al. (1968), p. 68.
  99. Baer (1968), p. 118.
  100. Wilson et al. (1968), p. 86.
  101. Deveria as quoted in Stenhouse (1873), pp. 513–14.
  102. Ritner (2013), pp. 101–86.
  103. E.g. Marquardt (2017).
  104. "Facsimile No. 1"
    https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/abr/fac-1?lang=eng
  105. Ritner (2013), pp. 117–18.
  106. Ritner (2013), p. 117.
  107. Ritner (2013), p. 113.
  108. Ritner (2013), pp. 113–14.
  109. Ritner (2013), p. 114.
  110. Pinch (1995), p. 157.
  111. Ritner (2003), p. 263.
  112. "Facsimile No. 2"
    https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/abr/fac-2?lang=eng
  113. Ritner (2013), p. 271.
  114. Gee (1991).
  115. Ritner (2013), p. 268.
  116. Ritner (2013), p. 270.
  117. Ritner (2013), pp. 273–74.
  118. Ritner (2013), p. 274.
  119. Ritner (2013), p. 272.
  120. Parker as quoted in Larson (1992), p. 107.
  121. Rhodes as quoted in Larson (1992), p. 107.
  122. Ritner (2013), p. 275.
  123. Ritner (2013), p. 267.
  124. The Joseph Smith Hypocephalus: Seventeen Years Later
    https://web.archive.org/web/20170822011955/http://www.lightplanet.com/response/BofAbraham/jshypo.htm
  125. Thompson (1995), p. 145.
  126. Thompson (1995), p. 144.
  127. "Facsimile No. 3"
    https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/abr/fac-3?lang=eng
  128. Ritner (2003), pp. 176–77.
  129. Larson (1992), p. 155.
  130. Wilson et al. (1968).
  131. Baer (1968).
  132. Ritner (2000).
  133. Larson (1992), pp. 104–08.
  134. Wilson et al. (1968), pp. 96–98.
  135. Gee (2000b), pp. 175–217.
  136. Gee (1992), p. 100.
  137. Rhodes (2003).
  138. Rhodes (2005), p. 19.
  139. Nibley (1980), pp. 89–90.
  140. Nibley (1980), pp. 90–91.
  141. Tvedtnes et al. (2001), p. 540.
  142. Gee (2011), pp. 137–56.
  143. "Translation and Historicity of the Book of Abraham"
    https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-topics-essays/translation-and-historicity-of-the-book-of-abraham?lang=eng
  144. Tvedtnes et al. (2001), p. 545.
  145. Eusebius, Praeparatio evangelica 9.17.2–9.
  146. Tvedtnes et al. (2001), p. 544.
  147. Thompson (1995), p. 154
  148. Muhlestein (2006).
  149. Barney (2006), pp. 115–16.
  150. Rhodes (2003), pp. 115–23.
  151. Peterson (1995), p. 27.
  152. Harris et al. (2020). e-book location 6445 of 8366.
  153. Coogan (2009).
  154. Ritner (2013), p. 117
  155. Viviano (1999), pp. 38–39.
  156. Bokovoy (2014), p. 165.
  157. Abraham 1:23–25.
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Pearl_of_Great_Price_(1913)/Abraham#1:23
  158. Thompson (1995), p. 155
  159. Mekis (2020), p. 2.
  160. Cooper (1987), p. 63.
  161. Skousen (2019), p. 39.
  162. Abraham 1:8–12
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Pearl_of_Great_Price_(1913)/Abraham#1:8
  163. Abraham 1:9.
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Pearl_of_Great_Price_(1913)/Abraham#1:9
  164. Ritner (2000), pp. 97–119.
  165. Muhlestein (2008), pp. 181–208.
  166. Gee & Muhlestein (2011).
  167. Ritner (2003), pp. 161–180.
  168. Abraham 1:20.
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Pearl_of_Great_Price_(1913)/Abraham#1:20
  169. Thompson (1995), pp. 154–155.
  170. Abraham 1:10.
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Pearl_of_Great_Price_(1913)/Abraham#1:10
  171. Ritner (2013), p. 3
  172. Ritner (2013), p. 90.
  173. Walton (1981).
  174. Hutchinson (1988), pp. 11–74.
  175. Sandberg (1989), pp. 17–38.
  176. Sarna (1966), p. 98.
  177. Grey (2020), p. 433.
  178. Seixas (1834), p. 78.
  179. Gesenius (1824), p. 671.
  180. Grey (2020), pp. 390–451.
  181. Grey (2015), pp. 249–302.
  182. Givens & Hauglid (2019), p. 115.
  183. "Book of Abraham Manuscript, 8–circa 15 March 1842 [Abraham 3:18–26]"
    https://www.josephsmithpapers.org/paper-summary/book-of-abraham-manuscript-8-circa-15-march-1842-abraham-318-26/1
  184. Ogden (1990), p. 165.
  185. Draper et al. (1990).
  186. "Book of Abraham Manuscript, circa July–circa November 1835–C [Abraham 1:1–2:18], p. 1"
    https://www.josephsmithpapers.org/paper-summary/book-of-abraham-manuscript-circa-july-circa-november-1835-c-abraham-11-218/1
  187. Grey (2020), p. 408, footnote 71.
  188. Grey (2020), p. 439.
  189. Gesenius (1824), p. 60.
  190. Harris (1970), pp. 126–127.
  191. Anderson (1968), p. 20 and footnote 16.
  192. "Source note to 'Blessing from Joseph Smith Sr., 9 December 1834'"
    https://www.josephsmithpapers.org/paper-summary/blessing-from-joseph-smith-sr-9-december-1834/1
  193. "Truth of the Book of Abraham (Part 4) - Egyptian Grammar & Race"
    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=64_kNhrwZfA&t=2453
  194. Abraham 3.
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Pearl_of_Great_Price_(1913)/Abraham#chapter_3
  195. Brodie (1971), pp. 171–172.
  196. Brooke (1994), pp. 205–207.
  197. Park (2012), pp. 210–224.
  198. Golding (2020), p. 353.
  199. "Sample of Pure Language, between circa 4 and circa 20 March 1832," p. 144"
    https://www.josephsmithpapers.org/paper-summary/sample-of-pure-language-between-circa-4-and-circa-20-march-1832/1
  200. Hauglid (2015), pp. 474–511.
  201. Jensen & Hauglid (2018), p. 54.
  202. Abraham 3:13.
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Pearl_of_Great_Price_(1913)/Abraham#3:13
  203. Whittaker (1983), p. 111.
  204. Doctrine and Covenants 117:8: "Is there not room enough on the mountains of Adam-ondi-Ahman, and on the plains of Olaha
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Doctrine_and_Covenants/Section_117#8
  205. "Egyptian Alphabet, circa Early July–circa November 1835–A, Page 1"
    https://www.josephsmithpapers.org/paper-summary/egyptian-alphabet-circa-early-july-circa-november-1835-a/1
  206. Abraham 1:21–27.
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Pearl_of_Great_Price_(1913)/Abraham#1:21
  207. Givens & Hauglid (2019), p. 135.
  208. "Letter to Oliver Cowdery, circa 9 April 1836"
    https://www.josephsmithpapers.org/paper-summary/letter-to-oliver-cowdery-circa-9-april-1836/2
  209. Bushman & Woodworth (2007). e-book location 6371 of 17510.
  210. Harris et al. (2020).
  211. Larson (1992), pp. 119–20.
  212. KSL
  213. The Salt Lake Tribune
    https://web.archive.org/web/20170824164014/http://archive.sltrib.com/article.php?id=58162708&itype=CMSID
  214. Rhodes (1977).
  215. Larson (1992), pp. 115–16.
  216. Crapo & Tvedtnes (1968).
  217. Crapo & Tvedtnes (1969a).
  218. Crapo & Tvedtnes (1969b).
  219. Crapo & Tvedtnes (1969c).
  220. Tvedtnes (1970).
  221. Larson (1992), pp. 117–19.
  222. Larson (1992), pp. 121–29.
  223. Terry & Whipple (1968), p. 116.
  224. Gee (2000a), pp. 12–13.
  225. Cook & Smith (2010).
  226. Smith (2011).
  227. Gee (1992), pp. 93–119.
  228. Rhodes (1992), pp. 120–26.
  229. Excerpts from P. Leiden I 384 (PGM XII), in Tvedtnes et al. (2001), pp. 501–2, 523.
  230. Betz (1986), p. 171.
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