Topzle Topzle

Augustus

Updated: Wikipedia source

Augustus

Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (Latin: Octavianus), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. The reign of Augustus initiated an imperial cult and an era of imperial peace (the Pax Romana or Pax Augusta) in which the Roman world was largely free of armed conflict. The principate, a style of government where the emperor showed nominal deference to the Senate, was established during his reign and lasted until the Crisis of the Third Century. Octavian was born into an equestrian branch of the plebeian gens Octavia. Following the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, Octavian was named in Caesar's will as his primary heir. Inheriting Caesar's estate and assuming his name, Octavian fought for the loyalty of Caesar's legions. He, Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus formed a triumvirate regime to avenge themselves upon the assassins of Caesar. Following their victory at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, the triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as de facto autocrats. The triumvirate was eventually torn apart by the competing ambitions of its members; Lepidus was sidelined in 36 BC and Antony was defeated by Octavian's naval commander Marcus Agrippa at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Antony and his wife Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic queen of Egypt, killed themselves during Octavian's invasion of Egypt, which then became Octavian's personal property. After the demise of the triumvirate, Augustus reached an accord with the remaining Roman elite: he would restore the façade of a free republic, centred around the Senate, the executive magistrates and the legislative assemblies. But his control of the armies meant he maintained autocratic power legitimised by his appointment as commander-in-chief of most Roman armies along with assuming the powers of the tribunate and censorship. A similar ambiguity is seen in his chosen names, the implied rejection of monarchical titles whereby he called himself princeps ('first citizen'), juxtaposed with his adoption of the name Augustus. He was also granted the title pater patriae (lit. 'father of the country') by the Senate. Augustus dramatically enlarged the empire, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum, and Raetia, expanding possessions in Africa, and completing the conquest of Hispania. His expansionism, however, suffered a major setback in Germania. Beyond the frontiers, he secured the empire with a buffer region of client states and negotiated peace with the Parthians. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed networks of roads with an official courier system, established a standing professional army, established the Praetorian Guard as well as official police and fire-fighting services for Rome, and renovated much of the city during his reign. Augustus died in AD 14 at age 75 from natural causes. Persistent rumors, substantiated somewhat by deaths in the imperial family, have claimed his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as emperor by his adoptive son Tiberius, Livia's son and former husband of Augustus's only biological child, Julia.

Infobox

Reign
16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14
Successor
Tiberius
Born
Gaius Octavius23 September 63 BCRome, Italy
Died
19 August AD 14 (aged 75)Nola, Italy
Burial
Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome
Spouses
mw- Claudia(m. 42 BC; div. 40 BC)Scribonia(m. 40 BC; div. 38 BC)Livia(m. 37 BC)
Issue
Julia the ElderGaius Caesar (adopted)Lucius Caesar (adopted)Agrippa Postumus (adopted)Tiberius (adopted)
Regnal name
Regnal nameImperator Caesar Augustus
Dynasty
Julio-Claudian
Father
Gaius OctaviusJulius Caesar (adoptive)
Mother
Atia
Occupation
Consul (43, 33, 31–23, 5, 2 BC)Triumvir (43–27 BC)Pontifex Maximus (from 12 BC)
Allegiance
Roman RepublicRoman Empire
Years of service
43–25 BC
Battles/wars
mw- li War of Mutina Battle of Forum Gallorum Battle of Mutina Liberators' Civil War Battle of Philippi Perusine War Bellum Siculum Battle of Tauromenium Illyricum Campaigns War of Actium Battle of Actium Battle of Alexandria Cantabrian Wars
Children
Julia the ElderGaius Caesar (adopted)Lucius Caesar (adopted)Agrippa Postumus (adopted)Tiberius (adopted)

Tables

· External links
Regnal titles
Regnal titles
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Regnal titles
New title
New title
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
New title
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Roman emperor 27 BC – AD 14
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Succeeded byTiberius
Political offices
Political offices
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Political offices
Preceded byC. Vibius Pansa CaetronianusA. Hirtius
Preceded byC. Vibius Pansa CaetronianusA. Hirtius
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Preceded byC. Vibius Pansa CaetronianusA. Hirtius
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Roman consul 43 BC (suffect) With: Q. Pedius
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Succeeded byM. Aemilius LepidusL. Munatius Plancus
Preceded byPaullus Aemilius LepidusM. Herennius Picens
Preceded byPaullus Aemilius LepidusM. Herennius Picens
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Preceded byPaullus Aemilius LepidusM. Herennius Picens
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Roman consul II 33 BC With: L. Volcatius Tullus
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Succeeded byCn. Domitius AhenobarbusC. Sosius
Preceded byCn. Domitius AhenobarbusC. Sosius
Preceded byCn. Domitius AhenobarbusC. Sosius
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Preceded byCn. Domitius AhenobarbusC. Sosius
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Roman consul III–XI 31–23 BC With: Mark AntonyM. Valerius Messalla CorvinusM. Licinius CrassusSex. AppuleiusM. AgrippaT. Statilius TaurusM. Junius SilanusC. Norbanus FlaccusCn. Calpurnius Piso
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Succeeded byM. Claudius Marcellus AeserninusL. Arruntius
Preceded byD. Laelius BalbusC. Antistius Vetus
Preceded byD. Laelius BalbusC. Antistius Vetus
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Preceded byD. Laelius BalbusC. Antistius Vetus
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Roman consul XII 5 BC With: L. Cornelius Sulla
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Succeeded byC. Calvisius SabinusL. Passienus Rufus
Preceded byL. Cornelius LentulusM. Valerius Messalla Messallinus
Preceded byL. Cornelius LentulusM. Valerius Messalla Messallinus
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Preceded byL. Cornelius LentulusM. Valerius Messalla Messallinus
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Roman consul XIII 2 BC With: M. Plautius Silvanus
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Succeeded byCossus Cornelius LentulusL. Calpurnius Piso
Religious titles
Religious titles
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Religious titles
Preceded byM. Aemilius Lepidus
Preceded byM. Aemilius Lepidus
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Preceded byM. Aemilius Lepidus
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Pontifex maximus 12 BC – AD 14
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Succeeded byTiberius
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynastyBorn: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14
Regnal titles
New title
Roman emperor 27 BC – AD 14
Succeeded byTiberius
Political offices
Preceded byC. Vibius Pansa CaetronianusA. Hirtius
Roman consul 43 BC (suffect) With: Q. Pedius
Succeeded byM. Aemilius LepidusL. Munatius Plancus
Preceded byPaullus Aemilius LepidusM. Herennius Picens
Roman consul II 33 BC With: L. Volcatius Tullus
Succeeded byCn. Domitius AhenobarbusC. Sosius
Preceded byCn. Domitius AhenobarbusC. Sosius
Roman consul III–XI 31–23 BC With: Mark AntonyM. Valerius Messalla CorvinusM. Licinius CrassusSex. AppuleiusM. AgrippaT. Statilius TaurusM. Junius SilanusC. Norbanus FlaccusCn. Calpurnius Piso
Succeeded byM. Claudius Marcellus AeserninusL. Arruntius
Preceded byD. Laelius BalbusC. Antistius Vetus
Roman consul XII 5 BC With: L. Cornelius Sulla
Succeeded byC. Calvisius SabinusL. Passienus Rufus
Preceded byL. Cornelius LentulusM. Valerius Messalla Messallinus
Roman consul XIII 2 BC With: M. Plautius Silvanus
Succeeded byCossus Cornelius LentulusL. Calpurnius Piso
Religious titles
Preceded byM. Aemilius Lepidus
Pontifex maximus 12 BC – AD 14
Succeeded byTiberius

References

  1. The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC and t
  2. Cassius Dio instead gives him the name Caepias, probably a corruption of Scaptia, the name of Octavius' birth tribe.
  3. Historian Patricia Southern contends that "Marcus Antonius used to insult Octavian by calling him the Thurian, asserting
  4. Karl Galinsky claims this name change based on the title imperator took place in 40 BC, rather than 38 BC.
  5. He was first proclaimed imperator on 16 April 43 BC, after the Battle of Forum Gallorum.
  6. For a similar translation, see Eder (2005, p. 13), who translates the name Augustus as "The Revered One".
  7. Anne-Marie Lewis writes that there is scholarly debate about Octavian's precise birthdate. Evidence that it had occurred
  8. On their family, Suetonius wrote: "There are many indications that the Octavian family was in days of old a distinguishe
  9. Luc (2024, p. 133) provides two dates, 59 and 58 BC, while Shotter (2005, pp. 1–2) says 58 BC only, and Chisholm & Fergu
  10. Patricia Southern adds that such a move carried political connotations for Octavian: "When his grandmother Julia died he
  11. Karl Galinsky claims that this was 48 BC, and Patricia Southern claims it occurred during 47 BC. Southern explains the
  12. Patricia Southern asserts that "the so-called 'first Triumvirate', describing the agreement made in 60/59 BC" between th
  13. In 46 BC, Atia consented for Octavian to join Caesar in Hispania, where he planned to fight the lingering forces of Pomp
  14. Oktavian und das Testament Caesars
  15. His daughter Julia had died in 54 BC; his son Caesarion by Cleopatra was not recognized by Roman law and was not mention
  16. Quintus Pedius and Lucius Pinarius were the remaining heirs, likely the children of Caesar's elder sister. Contra Nicola
  17. In defense of Octavian against the taunts of Mark Antony, Marcus Tullius Cicero stated "we have no more brilliant exampl
  18. The law is known as the lex Pedia. See also Augustus, RGDA, 2: "Those who slew my father⁠, I drove into exile, punishing
  19. aug refers to the religious office of augur, not the title augustus created in 27 BC.
  20. Marcus Barbatius was a moneyer.
  21. Karl Galinsky summarizes this political arrangement as follows: "for the next five years they became... tresviri rei pub
  22. For the remainder of 43 BC, Octavian relinquished his position as consul to Publius Ventidius, a political ally of Anton
  23. Ancient sources differ considerably as to how many men were targeted. Hinard 1985, pp. 266–269, reviews the evidence. Pl
  24. Patricia Southern writes that the "unpalatable truth" is that Octavian had a "vested interest" in removing political ene
  25. Karl Galinsky claims that the battle took place in two parts on 23 October 42 BC, the first engagement ending with Cassi
  26. Ratified on 20 March 43 BC, the Senate bestowed Sextus Pompeius with the office of praefectus classis et orae maritimae
  27. Karl Galinsky supports the figure of 60,000 veterans needing to be settled in Italy and nearby provinces. Klaus Bringman
  28. Mark Antony's children with Cleopatra were the twins Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene II born in 40 BC, and their s
  29. According to Patricia Southern, other stipulations of the Treaty of Misenum included Sextus Pompeius's future position a
  30. Patricia Southern writes that after consul Gaius Sosius made a speech on 1 January 32 BC denouncing Octavian, a measure
  31. Patricia Southern clarifies about the general Roman view regarding Mark Antony's will in the Donations of Alexandria and
  32. After Actium, Octavian returned to Italy in order to settle affairs there with the legions that were formerly under Mark
  33. According to Galinsky, one "spiteful" ancient primary source claims that Octavian accidentally knocked off the nose of t
  34. In his translation of Tacitus, Annals, 1.1.1, historian Klaus Bringmann prefers the term 'first citizen' for the Latin p
  35. He was first proclaimed imperator on 16 April 43 BC, after the Battle of Forum Gallorum.
  36. Officers acted on the orders of Marcellus and Augustus.
  37. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa had also refused to celebrate a triumph during his consulship of 37 BC during the triumvirate,
  38. The Roman historian Florus claimed that the silk-producing Seres, possibly the Han Chinese, visited the court of Augustu
  39. The date is provided by inscribed calendars. Dio reports this under 13 BC, probably as the year in which Lepidus died.
  40. Patricia Southern writes that this concept of imperium sine fine ('sovereignty without end') only came into doubt after
  41. Historian Patricia Southern writes that "Tiberius retrieved the losses, remaining in Germany for another two years, in A
  42. Julius Caesar was granted divine honors during his lifetime, but his posthumous deification and cult of Divus Julius wer
  43. Historian Patricia Southern writes that "In Rome and the west the process was slower to develop. Rome was a more sensiti
  44. Writing in review of Timothy Peter Wiseman's The house of Augustus: a historical detective story (2019), Sandra Bingham,
  45. On the connection of Octavian-Augustus to the god Apollo, Patricia Southern writes that they shared the same birthdate o
  46. As Tacitus wrote, the younger generations alive in AD 14 had never known any form of government other than the principat
  47. Suetonius, Augustus, 79, described Augustus as "unusually handsome and exceedingly graceful at all periods of his life,
  48. Galinsky 2012, pp. 75–76.
  49. Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, pp. 670–671.
  50. Richardson 2012, p. 225.
  51. Southern 2014, p. 1.
  52. Luke 2015, pp. 242–266, but arguing instead that Octavius chose the name to identify himself with his father's pacificat
  53. Lindsay 2009, p. 89, citing Dio, 45.1.1.
  54. Fratantuono 2016, pp. xviii–xix, 154–155 (endnotes 3, 6); Southern 2014, p. 3.
  55. Southern 2014, p. 3.
  56. Galinsky 2012, p. 16.
  57. Bringmann 2007, p. 283; Levick 2009, p. 209; Shotter 2005, p. 1.
  58. Bringmann 2007, p. 283.
  59. Fratantuono 2016, pp. xviii–xix, 154–155 (endnote 3).
  60. Southern 2014, p. 45.
  61. Bringmann 2007, p. 283; Galinsky 2012, p. 16.
  62. Shelton 1998, p. 58.
  63. Southern 2014, pp. 34, 131.
  64. Hammond 1957, p. 21 n. 1.
  65. Syme 1958, pp. 176, 179, 181–183, 185.
  66. Fishwick 2004, p. 250.
  67. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 50.
  68. Syme 1958, pp. 175, 179; Hammond 1957, p. 21; Galinsky 2012, pp. 38, 66–67; Southern 2014, pp. 50, 102, 131.
  69. Hammond 1957, pp. 21, 55; Galinsky 2012, pp. 66–67.
  70. Shotter 2005, p. 1.
  71. Bringmann 2007, pp. 304, 307.
  72. Galinsky 2005, pp. 7–8; Galinsky 2012, p. 16.
  73. Rattini 2019.
  74. Southern 2014, p. 24, Fig. 1.3.
  75. Bringmann 2007, p. 283; Galinsky 2012, pp. xv, 2–3; Lewis 2023, pp. 21–23; Southern 2014, pp. 1, 5.
  76. Lewis 2023, pp. 21–23.
  77. Galinsky 2012, pp. 2–3.
  78. Lewis 2023, pp. 34–35; Suetonius, Augustus, 5–6.
  79. Shotter 2005, pp. 1–2; Galinsky 2012, pp. 2, 4–5; Southern 2014, p. 1.
  80. Lewis 2023, p. 21; Southern 2014, p. 5.
  81. Fratantuono 2016, p. xix; Southern 2014, p. 3; Luke 2015, pp. 246 (rejecting the story from Suetonius, Augustus, 7.1), 2
  82. Galinsky 2012, pp. 1–2.
  83. Galinsky 2012, pp. 1–2; Southern 2014, p. 2.
  84. Galinsky 2012, pp. 2, 5; Southern 2014, p. 5.
  85. Lewis 2023, p. 34; Shotter 2005, pp. 1–2; Southern 2014, pp. 1–3.
  86. Suetonius, Augustus, 1.
  87. Shotter 2005, pp. 1–2; Luc 2024, p. 133; Southern 2014, pp. 5–6.
  88. Galinsky 2012, p. 5; Southern 2014, p. 7.
  89. Richardson 2012, p. 5; Broughton 1952. Broughton cites the elogium for Octavius, ILS 47, throughout.
    http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=D+00047&r_sortierung=Belegstelle
  90. Shotter 2005, pp. 1–2; Lewis 2023, p. 34; Rowell 1962, p. 14; Southern 2014, p. 7.
  91. Chisholm & Ferguson 1981, p. 23; Galinsky 2012, pp. xv, 5–6; Southern 2014, pp. 7, 9.
  92. Shotter 2005, pp. 1–2; Luc 2024, p. 133.
  93. Galinsky 2012, p. 6; Shotter 2005, p. 2; Southern 2014, pp. 3, 9.
  94. Galinsky 2012, p. 8; Southern 2014, p. 9.
  95. Galinsky 2012, pp. 6, 8; Southern 2014, p. 10 (Patricia Southern comes to a similar conclusion as Karl Galinsky, without
  96. Shotter 2005, p. 2; Galinsky 2012, pp. 1, 14; Southern 2014, p. 5, 10.
  97. Shotter 2005, p. 2; Galinsky 2012, pp. 1, 14; Southern 2014, p. 10.
  98. Southern 2014, p. 10.
  99. Galinsky 2012, p. 10.
  100. Galinsky 2012, pp. 10–11.
  101. Galinsky 2012, p. 9; Southern 2014, pp. 23–24.
  102. Galinsky 2012, p. 9.
  103. Southern 2014, pp. 23–24.
  104. Southern 2014, p. 24.
  105. Southern 2014, p. 25.
  106. Rowell 1962, p. 16; Galinsky 2012, p. 14.
  107. Galinsky 2012, pp. 7–8; Southern 2014, pp. 8–9, 11–12, 91; Bringmann 2007, pp. 229–231.
  108. Galinsky 2012, pp. 8, 14; Southern 2014, pp. 11–23, 91; Bringmann 2007, pp. 229–231, 249, 251–257.
  109. Southern 2014, p. 91.
  110. Galinsky 2012, p. 9; Southern 2014, p. 27.
  111. Galinsky 2012, p. 11; Southern 2014, p. 28.
  112. Galinsky 2012, pp. 9, 14; Southern 2014.
  113. Galinsky 2012, pp. 9, 14.
  114. Galinsky 2012, p. 14.
  115. Southern 2014, p. 33.
  116. Julius Caesar and the Roman People
    https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108943260
  117. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik
    https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0084-5388
  118. Southern 2014, pp. 26–27, 36–37, 44.
  119. Southern 2014, pp. 36–37.
  120. Southern 2014, p. 44.
  121. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 9; Galinsky 2012, pp. xv, 11, 14–15, 80; Southern 2014, pp. 36–37, 42–43.
  122. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 9; Southern 2014, pp. 34, 42.
  123. Roller 2010, p. 74; Burstein 2004, pp. xxi, 21.
  124. Tatum 2024, p. 146, noting Caesar's condicio nominis ferendi ("action of taking a name") "must not be confused with actu
  125. Southern 2014, pp. 42–43; Galinsky 2012, p. 15.
  126. Lindsay 2009, pp. 184–5, 186 n. 3 and Southern 2014, pp. 33–34, citing among others: Appian, Bella Civilia, 2.143; Cicer
  127. Richardson 2012, p. 7.
  128. Lindsay 2009, pp. 184–5.
  129. Galinsky 2012, pp. xv, 9–10, 15; Southern 2014, p. 43; Bringmann 2007, p. 283, though without mentioning the specific da
  130. Lindsay 2009, pp. 187–88, also rejecting claims (Appian, Bella Civilia, 3.13–14) that he presented himself before the pr
  131. Tatum 2024, p. 146, calling the claim of adoption "a transparent falsehood for anyone conversant with Roman law"; Lindsa
  132. Fratantuono 2016, pp. xviii–xix, 154–155 (n. 3); Mackay 2004, p. 160; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 10; Southern 1998, pp. 20–21
  133. Lindsay 2009, p. 89, citing among others Cicero, Ad Atticum, 14.12, 15.12, 16.8–9, 16.12, 16.14; Southern 2014, p. 45, q
  134. Southern 1998, p. 21; Southern 2014, p. 37.
  135. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 9–10.
  136. Rowell 1962, p. 19.
  137. Rowell 1962, p. 18.
  138. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 10; Eder 2005, p. 18.
  139. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 9.
  140. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 10.
  141. Chisholm & Ferguson 1981, pp. 24, 27; Rowell 1962, p. 20.
  142. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 10; Galinsky 2012, p. 20.
  143. Bringmann 2007, pp. 281–282; Galinsky 2012, pp. 21–22.
  144. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 10; Bringmann 2007, pp. 281–283, 285.
  145. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 11.
  146. Rawson 1994, p. 472, citing Appian, Bella Civilia, 3.94.
  147. Bringmann 2007, pp. 283, 285.
  148. Lindsay 2009, p. 188. "He had been pushing Antony for a lex curiata in order... to legalise his position as Caesar's son
  149. Galinsky 2012, pp. 21–24; Southern 2014, pp. 57–59, 61–62; Bringmann 2007, pp. 285–287.
  150. Galinsky 2012, p. 25.
  151. Rawson 1994, pp. 474–476; Galinsky 2012, pp. 25–26; Bringmann 2007, p. 287.
  152. Rawson 1994, pp. 474–476; Bringmann 2007, pp. 286–287.
  153. Chisholm & Ferguson 1981, p. 26; Rowell 1962, p. 30; Galinsky 2012, pp. 21, 26–27; Tatum 2024, pp. 159–60; Southern 2014
  154. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 11–12; Rowell 1962, p. 21; Galinsky 2012, p. 28; Southern 2014, p. 65; Bringmann 2007, pp. 285–28
  155. Syme 1939, pp. 123–126; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 12; Rowell 1962, p. 23; Southern 2014, pp. 66–67; Bringmann 2007, p. 287.
  156. Galinsky 2012, pp. 27–28; Southern 2014, p. 68; Bringmann 2007, p. 287.
  157. Bringmann 2007, p. 287.
  158. Galinsky 2012, pp. 27–28; Southern 2014, p. 68.
  159. Syme 1939, pp. 123–126; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 12; Rowell 1962, p. 23; Galinsky 2012, p. 28; Southern 2014, p. 69; Bringm
  160. Rowell 1962, p. 23; Bringmann 2007, p. 287; Galinsky 2012, p. 28; Southern 2014, pp. 66–69.
  161. Rowell 1962, p. 23.
  162. Galinsky 2012, pp. 28–29; Southern 2014, pp. 66–67, 71.
  163. Rowell 1962, p. 24; Southern 2014, p. 69; Bringmann 2007, pp. 290–291.
  164. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 12; Galinsky 2012, pp. 28–29.
  165. Chisholm & Ferguson 1981, p. 29.
  166. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 13; Rowell 1962, p. 23; Galinsky 2012, p. 29; Southern 2014, pp. 69–70; Bringmann 2007, p. 289.
  167. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 13; Syme 1939, p. 167; Galinsky 2012, pp. 29–30; Southern 2014, pp. 69–70; Bringmann 2007, pp. 289
  168. Rowell 1962, p. 24; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 13; Gruen 2005, p. 160; Southern 2014, p. 71.
  169. Syme 1939, pp. 173–174; Scullard 1982, p. 157; Galinsky 2012, p. 30; Southern 2014, pp. 71–72; Bringmann 2007, p. 291.
  170. Fishwick 2004, p. 250; Southern 2014, p. 72.
  171. Rowell 1962, pp. 26–27; Southern 2014, p. 72; Bringmann 2007, p. 291.
  172. Rowell 1962, p. 27.
  173. Chisholm & Ferguson 1981, pp. 32–33; Southern 2014, p. 74; Bringmann 2007, p. 292.
  174. Galinsky 2012, p. 30; Southern 2014, p. 74; Bringmann 2007, p. 292.
  175. Rowell 1962, p. 27; Southern 2014, p. 74.
  176. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 15; Rowell 1962, p. 28; Galinsky 2012, pp. 30–31; Southern 2014, pp. 83–86; Bringmann 2007, p. 292
  177. Welch 2014, pp. 138–145, preferring the Greek narratives (Appian, Bella Civilia, 3.95.392–3, Dio, 46.48.2–4) to the stre
  178. Welch 2014, pp. 138–39 (RGDA), 142–43.
  179. Lindsay 2009, pp. xi, 84; Southern 2014, pp. 87–88.
  180. Syme 1939, pp. 176–186; Southern 2014, pp. 79–80; Bringmann 2007, p. 292.
  181. Southern 2014, pp. 79–80; Bringmann 2007, p. 292.
  182. Southern 2014, pp. 89–90; Bringmann 2007, p. 292.
  183. Southern 2014, p. 89.
  184. "Common Legend Abbreviations On Roman Coins"
    http://www.davidrsear.com/academy/roman_legends.html
  185. Sear 2004, p. 89.
  186. Einaudi 2014.
  187. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 16; Galinsky 2012, p. 42; Burstein 2004, pp. xxi, 21–22; Bringmann 2007, p. 295; Southern 2014, pp
  188. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 16; Vervaet 2020, p. 24; Southern 2014, p. 97, 99; Bringmann 2007, p. 296.
  189. Scullard 1982, p. 163; Galinsky 2012, p. 42; Burstein 2004, pp. xxi, 21–22; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 15; Southern 2014, pp.
  190. Galinsky 2012, p. 42.
  191. Galinsky 2012, pp. 31, 40; Bringmann 2007, pp. 295–296; Southern 2014, pp. 93–94.
  192. Southern 2014, pp. 93, 100.
  193. Southern 2014, pp. 99–100.
  194. Hinard 1985, p. 269. « Au total... on trouve un chiffre d'environ 300 proscrits se répartissant également entre sénateur
  195. Southern 2014, pp. 97–98.
  196. Hinard 1985, pp. 267–268. « Mais il n'est pas vraisemblable, compte tenu des chiffres que nous avons cru pouvoir établir
  197. Hinard 1985, pp. 275–292.
  198. Southern 2014, pp. 94–95.
  199. Scott 1933, pp. 19–20.
  200. Scott 1933, p. 19.
  201. Scott 1933, p. 19; Southern 2014, p. 94.
  202. Scott 1933, p. 20.
  203. Scott 1933, pp. 19–20; Southern 2014, p. 95.
  204. Galinsky 2012, pp. 36–37; Bringmann 2007, p. 293; Southern 2014, pp. 94–95, 99.
  205. Scott 1933, p. 19; Southern 2014, p. 98.
  206. Southern 2014, pp. 73, 94–95.
  207. Southern 2014, p. 95.
  208. Galinsky 2012, pp. 36, 42; Scullard 1982, p. 164; Southern 2014, pp. 97, 100–101.
  209. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 16; Southern 2014, pp. 96–97.
  210. Richardson 2012, p. 37. After protests led by Hortensia, the taxes on women were scaled back considerably. Southern 2014
  211. Syme 1939, p. 202; Southern 2014, pp. 101–102.
  212. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 17; Southern 2014, pp. 80–82, 104; Bringmann 2007, pp. 290, 297.
  213. Roller 2010, p. 75; Galinsky 2012, p. 42; Burstein 2004, pp. xxi, 22–23; Southern 2014, pp. 104–106; Bringmann 2007, p.
  214. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 17–18.
  215. Southern 2014, pp. 104, 106.
  216. Galinsky 2012, p. 32.
  217. Southern 2014, p. 106.
  218. Galinsky 2012, pp. 32–33, 35, 42.
  219. Bringmann 2007, p. 297; Southern 2014, p. 108.
  220. Southern 2014, pp. 82–83, Fig. 3.2.
  221. Southern 2014, pp. 107–108; Bringmann 2007, pp. 296–298; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 18.
  222. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 18; Roller 2010, pp. 4–5, 69–71, 76–83; Burstein 2004, pp. xxi–xxii, 20, 23–24.
  223. Southern 2014, p. 108; Bringmann 2007, pp. 296–297.
  224. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 18; Roller 2010, p. 76; Southern 2014, p. 108.
  225. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 18; Galinsky 2012, pp. 42–43; Southern 2014, p. 108; Bringmann 2007, p. 298.
  226. Galinsky 2012, pp. 42–43.
  227. Bringmann 2007, p. 298.
  228. Southern 2014, p. 108.
  229. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 18; Southern 2014, p. 108.
  230. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 18–19; Southern 2014, pp. 108–109; Bringmann 2007, p. 298.
  231. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 19; Galinsky 2012, pp. 42–43; Bringmann 2007, p. 298.
  232. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 19; Galinsky 2012, p. 43; Southern 2014, pp. 109–111; Bringmann 2007, p. 298.
  233. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 19; Galinsky 2012, p. 40.
  234. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 19; Galinsky 2012, pp. 36, 40, 43.
  235. Southern 2014, pp. 111–112.
  236. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 19.
  237. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 19; Galinsky 2012, pp. 36, 40, 43; Southern 2014, pp. 112–113; Bringmann 2007, p. 298.
  238. Rowell 1962, p. 32; Southern 2014, pp. 112–113, 129; Bringmann 2007, p. 298.
  239. Southern 2014, p. 130.
  240. Galinsky 2012, p. 44.
  241. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 20; Galinsky 2012, p. 36; Southern 2014, p. 113.
  242. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 20; Rowell 1962, p. 32; Southern 2014, p. 113.
  243. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 20.
  244. Southern 2014, pp. 82–83, 131, 133, Fig. 3.2.
  245. Scullard 1982, p. 162; Southern 2014, pp. 133; Bringmann 2007, p. 299.
  246. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 20; Southern 2014, p. 130.
  247. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 20; Galinsky 2012, pp. 40–41; Southern 2014, p. 123; Bringmann 2007, p. 299.
  248. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 20; Galinsky 2012, p. 41; Southern 2014, pp. 123, 137–138; Bringmann 2007, p. 299, though he only
  249. Galinsky 2012, pp. 40–41; Southern 2014, pp. 123, 137–138; Bringmann 2007, p. 299, who mentions Tiberius Claudius Nero d
  250. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 21; Galinsky 2012, p. 46; Roller 2010, pp. 83–84; Burstein 2004, p. xxii, 25.
  251. Galinsky 2012, p. 46; Roller 2010, pp. 83–84; Burstein 2004, p. xxii, 25.
  252. Roller 2010; Burstein 2004, p. xxii, 25–26.
  253. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 21; Eder 2005, p. 19; Galinsky 2012, p. 44; Southern 2014, pp. 130, 132; Bringmann 2007, pp. 298–2
  254. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 21; Eder 2005, p. 19; Galinsky 2012, p. 44; Southern 2014, pp. 130, 132.
  255. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 21; Eder 2005, p. 19; Galinsky 2012, p. 44; Southern 2014, pp. 130–131.
  256. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 21; Galinsky 2012, p. 44; Southern 2014, pp. 130–131; Bringmann 2007, p. 299.
  257. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 21.
  258. Bringmann 2007, p. 299.
  259. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 21; Galinsky 2012, p. 44; Southern 2014, pp. 4, 132; Bringmann 2007, p. 299.
  260. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 22; Eder 2005, p. 19; Southern 2014, pp. 133–134; Bringmann 2007, p. 299.
  261. Eder 2005, p. 19.
  262. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 22.
  263. Southern 2014, pp. 82 (Fig. 3.2), 104, 133.
  264. Eder 2005, p. 19; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 22; Galinsky 2012, p. 44; Southern 2014, pp. 133–134, Figure 4.3; Bringmann 2007
  265. Southern 2014, p. 134.
  266. Bringmann 2007, p. 299; Southern 2014, p. 134.
  267. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 23.
  268. Southern 2014, pp. 138–139.
  269. Southern 2014, p. 139.
  270. Scullard 1982, p. 163; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 24.
  271. Scullard 1982, p. 163; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 24; Southern 2014, pp. 139–140; Bringmann 2007, pp. 299–300.
  272. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 24.
  273. Southern 2014, pp. 139–140; Bringmann 2007, pp. 299–300.
  274. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 25; Galinsky 2012, p. 46; Southern 2014, pp. 139, 154; Bringmann 2007, pp. 299–300.
  275. Southern 2014, p. 141; Galinsky 2012, p. 45; Bringmann 2007, p. 299.
  276. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 25–26; Galinsky 2012, pp. 38, 44–45; Southern 2014, p. 141; Bringmann 2007, p. 300.
  277. Southern 2014, pp. 141–142.
  278. Southern 2014, pp. 141–142; Bringmann 2007, p. 300.
  279. Galinsky 2012, pp. 44–45; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 26; Southern 2014, pp. 142, 145–146; Bringmann 2007, p. 300.
  280. Galinsky 2012, p. 47; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 26; Southern 2014, p. 142; Bringmann 2007, p. 300.
  281. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 26; Southern 2014, p. 142–143; Bringmann 2007, p. 300.
  282. Galinsky 2012, p. 38.
  283. Scullard 1982, p. 164; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 26; Galinsky 2012, p. 38; Southern 2014, pp. 143, 146; Bringmann 2007, p. 3
  284. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 26–27; Southern 2014, p. 147; Bringmann 2007, p. 300.
  285. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 26–27.
  286. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 27–28; Southern 2014, pp. 143–145.
  287. Southern 2014, pp. 148–150.
  288. Southern 2014, pp. 149–150, 154.
  289. Southern 2014, p. 150.
  290. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 29; Roller 2010, pp. 97–98.
  291. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 29–30; Galinsky 2012, pp. 41, 46; Southern 2014, p. 151; Roller 2010, p. 97; Burstein 2004, p. 27
  292. Roller 2010, p. 96; Burstein 2004, pp. xxii, 25–26.
  293. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 29–30; Galinsky 2012, pp. 41, 46; Southern 2014, p. 154; Roller 2010, pp. 97–98; Burstein 2004, p
  294. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 30.
  295. Eder 2005, p. 20; Bringmann 2007, p. 300.
  296. Galinsky 2012, p. 46; Southern 2014, p. 151; Roller 2010, p. 99; Burstein 2004, pp. xxii, 28.
  297. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 30; Bringmann 2007, p. 301; Roller 2010, pp. 99–100; Burstein 2004, pp. xxii, 28–29.
  298. Roller 2010, pp. 99–100; Bringmann 2007, pp. 301–302; Burstein 2004, pp. xxii, 29; Southern 2014, p. 151.
  299. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 30; Bringmann 2007, p. 302; Southern 2014, pp. 152–154.
  300. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 31; Bringmann 2007, p. 302; Galinsky 2012, pp. 46–47.
  301. Galinsky 2012, pp. 47–48; Roller 2010, p. 135; Bringmann 2007, p. 303; Burstein 2004, p. xxii, 29; Southern 2014, pp. 15
  302. Galinsky 2012, pp. 48–50; Southern 2014, pp. 155, 157–158.
  303. Southern 2014, p. 158.
  304. Southern 2014, pp. 155–158.
  305. Galinsky 2012, pp. 48–50; Roller 2010, p. 134; Bringmann 2007, p. 303; Burstein 2004, pp. 29–30; Southern 2014, p. 158.
  306. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 32–34; Roller 2010, p. 135; Bringmann 2007, p. 303; Southern 2014, p. 159.
  307. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 34; Roller 2010, p. 135; Bringmann 2007, p. 303; Galinsky 2012, p. 50; Southern 2014, p. 159.
  308. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 34–35; Eder 2005, pp. 21–22; Roller 2010, pp. 135–136; Galinsky 2012, p. 50; Burstein 2004, p. 29
  309. Bringmann 2007, p. 303; Galinsky 2012, p. 59.
  310. Southern 2014, p. 159; Bringmann 2007, p. 303; Roller 2010, p. 136.
  311. Southern 2014, p. 159.
  312. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 35; Eder 2005, p. 22; Roller 2010, pp. 136–137; Galinsky 2012, p. 50; Burstein 2004, pp. xxii, 30;
  313. Galinsky 2012, pp. 51–52.
  314. Bringmann 2007, p. 303.
  315. Galinsky 2012, pp. 51–52; Southern 2014, pp. 155–157.
  316. Galinsky 2012, pp. 51–52; Bringmann 2007, p. 303; Southern 2014, pp. 157, 160–161.
  317. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 37; Galinsky 2012, p. 53.
  318. Galinsky 2012, pp. 53–55.
  319. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 37; Southern 2014, p. 162.
  320. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 37; Roller 2010, p. 138; Galinsky 2012, pp. 53–55; Southern 2014, p. 163.
  321. Roller 2010, p. 175; Walker 2008, pp. 35, 42–44.
  322. Roller 2010, pp. 137, 139; Galinsky 2012, pp. 53–55; Bringmann 2007, pp. 303–304.
  323. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 38; Roller 2010, pp. 137, 139; Galinsky 2012, pp. 31, 53–55; Bringmann 2007, pp. 303–304; Burstein
  324. Roller 2010, pp. 139–140; Galinsky 2012, p. 55; Bringmann 2007, p. 304; Burstein 2004, p. 30–31; Southern 2014, pp. 163–
  325. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 38–39.
  326. Galinsky 2012, p. 55; Bringmann 2007, p. 304; Burstein 2004, pp. xxii–xxiii, 30–31; Southern 2014, pp. 164–165.
  327. Southern 2014, pp. 165–166.
  328. Roller 2010, pp. 138–140.
  329. Bringmann 2007, p. 304.
  330. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 39; Roller 2010, pp. 145–148; Galinsky 2012, pp. 31, 55–56; Burstein 2004, p. 31; Bringmann 2007,
  331. Roller 2010, p. 145; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 39; Galinsky 2012, pp. 31, 55.
  332. Roller 2010, pp. 146–147, 213, footnote 83; Galinsky 2012, p. 56; Bringmann 2007, p. 304; Burstein 2004, p. 31; Southern
  333. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 39; Roller 2010, pp. 147–149; Burstein 2004, pp. 31–32; Southern 2014, p. 173.
  334. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 49.
  335. Roller 2010, p. 150.
  336. Roller 2010, pp. 149–150, 153; Galinsky 2012, p. 56; Burstein 2004, p. xxiii, 32; Southern 2014, pp. 159, 173.
  337. Green 1990, p. 697; Scullard 1982, p. 171; Southern 2014, p. 173.
  338. Roller 2010, p. 153; Burstein 2004, pp. 32, 76–77; Southern 2014, pp. 132–133, 173.
  339. Roller 2010, pp. 153–154; Burstein 2004, pp. 32, 76–77; Southern 2014, p. 173.
  340. Galinsky 2012, p. 56; Southern 2014, pp. 165, 173–174.
  341. Bringmann 2007, p. 304; Galinsky 2012, pp. 56–58; Southern 2014, pp. 165, 173–174, 184–185, 236.
  342. Galinsky 2012, p. 56.
  343. Burstein 2004, pp. xxiii, 1.
  344. Galinsky 2012, p. 59.
  345. Galinsky 2012, pp. 63, 80.
  346. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 45.
  347. Galinsky 2012, p. 72.
  348. Southern 2014, p. 336; Galinsky 2012, pp. 67–68; Wiseman 2022, pp. 15–17.
  349. Richardson 2012, p. 89.
  350. Bringmann 2007, pp. 304–305.
  351. Galinsky 2012, p. 70.
  352. Bringmann 2007, pp. 304–305; Gruen 2005, pp. 34–35; Galinsky 2012, pp. 70–71.
  353. Eder 2005, pp. 24–25; Gruen 2005, pp. 38–39; Galinsky 2012, pp. 63, 70–74.
  354. Bringmann 2007, p. 305; Shotter 2005, p. 1; Galinsky 2012, pp. 70–71.
  355. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 44–45; Galinsky 2012, pp. 68–70.
  356. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 44–45.
  357. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 44–45; Galinsky 2012, pp. 68–71.
  358. Bringmann 2007, pp. 307, 317; Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 45–50; Galinsky 2012, p. 66.
  359. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 45–50.
  360. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 113.
  361. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 80.
  362. Scullard 1982, p. 211.
  363. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 46; Scullard 1982, p. 210; Galinsky 2012, pp. 62, 66.
  364. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 46; Gruen 2005, p. 34.
  365. Gruen 2005, p. 34; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 47.
  366. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 47.
  367. Drogula 2015, p. 362.
  368. Southern 2014, pp. 13–16.
  369. Eder 2005, p. 24; Galinsky 2012, p. 66.
  370. Eder 2005, p. 24.
  371. Eder 2005, pp. 24–25; Scullard 1982, p. 211.
  372. Eder 2005, pp. 24–25.
  373. AE 1898, 14 = AE 2007, 312: XVII – Kalendas Februarias – c(omitialis) Imp(erator) Caesar [Augustus est a]ppell[a]tus ips
    http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=AE+1898%2C+00014&r_sortierung=Belegstelle
  374. CIL X, 8375: [X]VII K(alendas) Febr(uarias) eo di[e Caesar Augustu]s appellatus est supplicatio Augusto
    http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=CIL+10%2C+08375&r_sortierung=Belegstelle
  375. Ovid 587–590 Archived 8 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine: Id. [...] Populo provinciae redditae. Octaviano Augusti nomen
    https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/8738/pg8738.html
  376. Censorinus XXI.8 : quamvis ex ante diem XVI kal. Febr. imperator Caesar. The number is right, but the phrasing is not.
    https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Censorinus/text*.html#21.8
  377. Fasti Praenestini;Feriale Cumanum. Ovid's Fasti gives 13 January, the same date in which the Senate powers were "restore
  378. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 50; Bringmann 2007, pp. 304–307; Galinsky 2012, pp. 62, 66–67.
  379. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 50; Galinsky 2012, pp. 66–67; Strothmann 2006.
  380. Eder 2005, p. 24; Galinsky 2012, pp. 66–67.
  381. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 49; Galinsky 2012, p. 67.
  382. Roberts 2007, p. 858.
  383. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 3, 149.
  384. Hammond 1957, pp. 29–31; Strothmann 2006.
  385. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 50; Galinsky 2012, pp. 66–67.
  386. riminiturismo.it
    https://riminiturismo.it/visitatori/scopri-il-territorio/arte-e-cultura/archi-e-porte/arco-daugusto
  387. Eder 2005, p. 13.
  388. Eder 2005, p. 24; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 3; Galinsky 2012, p. 70.
  389. Galinsky 2012, pp. 72, 80–81.
  390. Wells 1995, p. 51; Southern 2014, pp. 182–183; Galinsky 2012, pp. 72–73.
  391. Southern 1998, p. 108; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 55.
  392. Holland 2005, p. 294.
  393. Davies 2010, p. 259.
  394. Ando 2000, p. 140; Raaflaub & Samons 1993, p. 426; Wells 1995, p. 53; Galinsky 2012, pp. 73–74.
  395. Southern 1998, p. 108; Holland 2005, p. 295.
  396. Eder 2005, p. 25; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 56.
  397. Gruen 2005, p. 38.
  398. Gruen 2005, pp. 38–39.
  399. Stern 2006, p. 23.
  400. Holland 2005, pp. 294–295; Southern 1998, p. 108; Galinsky 2012, p. 74.
  401. Southern 2014, p. 320.
  402. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 56; Eder 2005, p. 26.
  403. Gruen 2005, p. 36.
  404. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 57.
  405. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 56; Gruen 2005, p. 37.
  406. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 56–57.
  407. Southern 1998, p. 109; Holland 2005, p. 299.
  408. Wells 1995, p. 53; Galinsky 2012, p. 73.
  409. Southern 1998, p. 108.
  410. Holland 2005, p. 300.
  411. Southern 1998, p. 108; Galinsky 2012, pp. 73–74.
  412. Syme 1939, p. 333; Galinsky 2012, pp. 73–74.
  413. Syme 1939, p. 333; Holland 2005, p. 300; Southern 1998, p. 108; Galinsky 2012, pp. 73–74.
  414. Wells 1995, p. 53; Raaflaub & Samons 1993, p. 426; Galinsky 2012, pp. 73–74.
  415. Eder 2005, p. 26.
  416. Galinsky 2012, pp. 72–73; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 57; Southern 2014, p. 145.
  417. Gruen 2005, p. 36; Southern 2014, pp. 143–145.
  418. Eder 2005, p. 26; Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 57–58.
  419. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 59.
  420. Eder 2005, p. 30.
  421. Bunson 1994, p. 80.
  422. Bunson 1994, p. 427.
  423. Galinsky 2012, p. 73.
  424. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 60.
  425. Bringmann 2007, p. 317.
  426. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 61.
  427. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 61; Bringmann 2007, p. 317.
  428. Bringmann 2007, p. 317; Southern 2014, p. 236.
  429. Southern 2014, p. 236.
  430. Southern 2014, pp. 140–141.
  431. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 117; Southern 2014, pp. 236, 307.
  432. Southern 2014, pp. 236, 307.
  433. Southern 2014, p. 238.
  434. Kolb & Speidel 2017, p. 35.
  435. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 78.
  436. Swan 2004, p. 241; Syme 1939, p. 483.
  437. Wells 1995, p. 53; Holland 2005, p. 301.
  438. Davies 2010, p. 260; Holland 2005, p. 301.
  439. Holland 2005, p. 301.
  440. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 60; Gruen 2005, p. 43; Galinsky 2012, p. 73.
  441. Gruen 2005, p. 43; Galinsky 2012, p. 73.
  442. Bowersock 1990, p. 380; Southern 2014, p. 323.
  443. Bowersock 1990, p. 380.
  444. Bowersock 1990, p. 383; Eder 2005, p. 28.
  445. Mackay 2004, p. 186; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 129.
  446. Syme 1939, pp. 337–338.
  447. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 93.
  448. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 93; Bringmann 2007, p. 316.
  449. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 95.
  450. Southern 2014, p. 309.
  451. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 94.
  452. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 94; Southern 2014, p. 306.
  453. Southern 2014, p. 237.
  454. Southern 2014, p. 306.
  455. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 94; Southern 2014.
  456. Southern 2014, p. 236; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 97.
  457. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 97.
  458. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 98; Southern 2014, pp. 235–236.
  459. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 98.
  460. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 98–99.
  461. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 99.
  462. Bunson 1994, p. 416.
  463. Southern 2014, pp. 306–307.
  464. Galinsky 2012, pp. 71–72.
  465. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 96; Southern 2014, p. 211.
  466. Bunson 1994, p. 416; Southern 2014, p. 211.
  467. Bunson 1994, p. 416; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 96; Brosius 2006, pp. 96–97, 136–138; Southern 2014, pp. 212–213.
  468. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 95–96.
  469. Brosius 2006, p. 97.
  470. Brosius 2006, p. 97; Bivar 1983, pp. 66–67; Southern 2014, pp. 212–213, Fig. 212, Fig. 213; Galinsky 2012, pp. 75–76; Br
  471. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 96.
  472. Rowell 1962, p. 13.
  473. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 101–102; Southern 2014, pp. 307–308, 328.
  474. Bunson 1994, p. 417; Southern 2014, pp. 308–309.
  475. Southern 2014, pp. 308–309.
  476. Bunson 1994, p. 417; Southern 2014, pp. 308–309, 328.
  477. Southern 2014, p. 308.
  478. Bunson 1994, p. 31.
  479. Bowersock 1983, p. 46.
  480. Bowersock 1983, pp. 46–47.
  481. Bowersock 1983, pp. 47–49.
  482. Bowersock 1983, pp. 46, 49 (footnote 16).
  483. Welsby 1996, p. 69; Southern 2014, p. 236.
  484. Welsby 1996, pp. 69–70; Southern 2014, pp. 236–237.
  485. Welsby 1996, pp. 68–70; Southern 2014, p. 237.
  486. Welsby 1996, pp. 68–70.
  487. Welsby 1996, p. 70.
  488. Gruen 2005, p. 50.
  489. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 114–115.
  490. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 115.
  491. Gruen 2005, p. 44.
  492. Gruen 2005, p. 44; Eck & Takács 2003, p. 58.
  493. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 58.
  494. Syme 1939, pp. 416–417.
  495. Scullard 1982, p. 217.
  496. Syme 1939, p. 417.
  497. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 116.
  498. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 117; Gruen 2005, p. 46.
  499. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 117–118; Gruen 2005, pp. 46–47.
  500. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 119; Southern 2014, pp. 293–294, 298.
  501. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 119–120.
  502. Southern 2014, p. 304.
  503. Gruen 2005, p. 49.
  504. Gruen 2005, p. 49; Southern 2014, pp. 304–306.
  505. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 123; Southern 2014, pp. 310–311.
  506. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 123; Southern 2014, p. 311.
  507. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 123.
  508. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 123; Southern 2014, pp. 293–294, 298, 308–311, 317.
  509. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 123; Southern 2014, p. 318.
  510. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 124; Southern 2014, p. 318.
  511. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 124; Southern 2014, pp. 318, 323.
  512. Southern 2014, p. 102.
  513. Southern 2014, p. 103.
  514. Southern 2014, p. 323.
  515. Southern 2014, pp. 323–324.
  516. Shotter 1966, pp. 210–212.
  517. Shotter 1966, p. 211.
  518. Shaw-Smith 1971, p. 213.
  519. Setton 1976, p. 375.
  520. Galinsky 2005, pp. 1, 6.
  521. Galinsky 2012, pp. 84–85.
  522. Hammond 1965, p. 152.
  523. Hammond 1957, pp. 21–54; Shotter 2005, p. 1.
  524. Galinsky 2012, p. 78.
  525. Galinsky 2012, p. xxiv.
  526. Brockkötter 2025, pp. 495–498.
  527. Southern 2014, p. 341.
  528. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 1–2.
  529. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 2.
  530. Bunson 1994, p. 47.
  531. Bourne 1918, pp. 53–66; Ohst 2023, pp. 262–268.
  532. Southern 2014, p. 321, Fig. 9.4.
  533. Galinsky 2012, p. 85.
  534. Galinsky 2012, pp. 94–95.
  535. Bringmann 2007, p. 316.
  536. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 79; Southern 2014, pp. 302–304.
  537. Southern 2014, pp. 302–303.
  538. Bunson 1994, p. 345; Southern 2014, pp. 303–304.
  539. Southern 2014, pp. 302–304.
  540. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 85–87.
  541. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 86.
  542. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 81.
  543. Chisholm & Ferguson 1981, p. 122.
  544. Bunson 1994, p. 6.
  545. Bunson 1994, p. 341.
  546. Southern 2014, p. 250, 292–293.
  547. Bunson 1994, pp. 341–342.
  548. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 83–84.
  549. Bunson 1994, p. 404.
  550. Bunson 1994, p. 144; Southern 2014, pp. 184–185; Galinsky 2012, pp. 56, 58.
  551. Bunson 1994, pp. 144–145; Southern 2014, pp. 173–174, 184–185; Galinsky 2012, pp. 56, 58.
  552. Bunson 1994, p. 145; Southern 2014, p. 185.
  553. Bunson 1994, p. 145; Southern 2014, pp. 325–326.
  554. Bunson 1994, p. 144.
  555. Southern 2014, p. 317.
  556. Nothaft 2018, p. 122; Southern 2014, p. 86; Hosch 2023.
  557. Nothaft 2018, p. 122; Southern 2014, p. 86; Hosch 2023; British Museum 2017.
  558. Nothaft 2018, p. 122; Southern 2014.
  559. British Museum 2017.
  560. Bunson 1994, p. 34; Southern 2014, p. 331, citing Dio, 56.30.3, and Suetonius, Augustus, 28.3.
  561. Bunson 1994, p. 34.
  562. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 122; Southern 2014, pp. 331, 341–345, Fig. A1.8, Fig. A1.9, Fig. A1.10.
  563. Bunson 1994, p. 32.
  564. Eck & Takács 2003, pp. 118–121; Southern 2014, pp. 330, 333–334, 337–340, Fig. A1.5, Fig. A1.6, Fig. A1.7.
  565. Bunson 1994, p. 34; Southern 2014, pp. 334–336, Fig. A1.3.
  566. Southern 2014, pp. 330–334, Fig. A1.1.
  567. Southern 2014, p. 333, Fig. A1.2.
  568. Southern 2014, pp. 330, 345–346.
  569. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 79; Southern 2014, p. 146.
  570. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 79.
  571. Southern 2014, p. 345.
  572. Southern 2014, p. 336; Galinsky 2012, pp. 67–68.
  573. Richardson 1992, pp. 117–18, citing Suetonius, Augustus, 72.1.
  574. Wiseman 2022, pp. 15–17; Bingham 2021, pp. 317–319.
  575. Bingham 2021, pp. 318–319.
  576. Galinsky 2012, pp. 67–68.
  577. Southern 2014, p. 336.
  578. Galinsky 2012, pp. 67–68, Map 2, Fig. 13; Southern 2014, p. 336.
  579. Ring, Salkin & La Boda 1996, p. 121.
  580. Villa where Augustus probably died is unearthed
    https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211027/AJAcZ8CWVMA
  581. Eck & Takács 2003, p. 124.
  582. Tacitus, I.3.
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)/Book_1#3
  583. Eder 2005, p. 23.
  584. Starr 1952, p. 5.
  585. Southern 2014, pp. 319–320.
  586. Southern 2014, pp. 96–97.
  587. Kelsall 1976, p. 120.
  588. Southern 2014, pp. 146–147.
  589. Southern 2014, p. 305.
  590. Southern 2014, pp. 305–306.
  591. Starr 1952, p. 6.
  592. Kelsall 1976, p. 118.
  593. Kelsall 1976, p. 119.
  594. Southern 2014, p. 319.
  595. Welsby 1996, p. 68; Southern 2014, p. 184, Fig. 5.7.
  596. Goldsworthy 2014, p. 68.
  597. Panzanelli 2008, pp. 116–117.
  598. Carter 1983, pp. 25, 30.
  599. Southern 2014, pp. 320–321; Carter 1983, p. 24.
  600. Walker & Burnett 1981, pp. 1, 18, 25 (quoted).
  601. Southern 2014, p. 322.
  602. Smith 1997, p. 186.
  603. Southern 2014, pp. 177–178.
Image
Source: —
Tip: Wheel or +/− to zoom, drag to pan, Esc to close.