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Albert Einstein

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Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist best known for developing the theory of relativity. Einstein also made important contributions to quantum theory. His mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, which arises from special relativity, has been called "the world's most famous equation". He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for "his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". Born in the German Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg) the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss federal polytechnic school in Zurich, graduating in 1900. He acquired Swiss citizenship a year later, which he kept for the rest of his life, and afterwards secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to the University of Zurich. In 1914, he moved to Berlin to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin, becoming director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in 1917; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of the Kingdom of Prussia. In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Horrified by the Nazi persecution of his fellow Jews, he decided to remain in the US, and was granted American citizenship in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommending that the US begin similar research, later carried out as the Manhattan Project. In 1905, sometimes described as his annus mirabilis (miracle year), he published four groundbreaking papers. In them, he outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explained Brownian motion, introduced his special theory of relativity, and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed a general theory of relativity that extended his system of mechanics to incorporate gravitation. A paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of the universe as a whole. It introduced the cosmological constant and is further regarded as the first step in the field of modern theoretical cosmology. In 1917, Einstein wrote a paper which introduced the concepts of spontaneous emission and stimulated emission, the latter of which is the core mechanism behind the laser and maser, and which contained a trove of information that would be beneficial to developments in physics later on, such as quantum electrodynamics and quantum optics. In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions to statistical mechanics and quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics of radiation, in which light consists of particles, subsequently called photons. With physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, he laid the groundwork for Bose–Einstein statistics. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that ultimately proved unsuccessful. First, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that "God does not play dice". Second, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from mainstream modern physics.

Infobox

Born
(1879-03-14)14 March 1879Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg, German Empire[note 1]
Died
18 April 1955(1955-04-18) (aged 76)Princeton, New Jersey, U.S.
Citizenship
mw- See list Kingdom of Württemberg, part of the German Empire (until 1896)[note 1] Stateless (1896–1901) Switzerland (1901–1955) Kingdom of Prussia, part of the German Empire (1914–1918)[note 1] Free State of Prussia (Weimar Republic, 1918–1933)[note 1] United States (1940–1955)
Education
Swiss Federal Polytechnic School (teaching diploma, 1900) University of Zurich (PhD, 1905)
Known for
General relativity Special relativity Photoelectric effect E=mc2 (mass–energy equivalence) E=hf (Planck–Einstein relation) Theory of Brownian motion Einstein field equations Bose–Einstein statistics Bose–Einstein condensate Gravitational wave Cosmological constant Unified field theory EPR paradox Ensemble interpretation List of other concepts
Spouses
mw- Mileva Marić (m. 1903; div. 1919) Elsa Löwenthal (m. 1919; died 1936)
Children
mw- .inline, .inline dl, .inline ol, .inline ul, dl dl, dl ol, dl ul, ol dl, ol ol dd dd dd , dd dt , dd li , dt dd , dt dt , dt li , li dd dd dd , dd dt , dd li , dt dd , dt dt , dt li , li dd dd ol li Lieserl Hans Albert Eduard "Tete"
Family
Einstein
Awards
See list Barnard Medal for Meritorious Service to Science (1920) Nobel Prize in Physics (1921) Matteucci Medal (1921) ForMemRS (1921) Copley Medal (1925) Gold Medal of RAS (1926) Max Planck Medal (1929) Membership of NAS (1942) Time Person of the Century (1999)
Fields
Physics
Institutions
See list University of Bern (1908–1909) University of Zurich (1909–1911) Charles University in Prague (1911–1912) ETH Zurich (1912–1914) Prussian Academy of Sciences (1914–1933) Humboldt University of Berlin (1914–1933) Kaiser Wilhelm Institute (director, 1917–1933) German Physical Society (president, 1916–1918) Institute for Advanced Study (1933–1955)
Thesis
Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen (A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions) (1905)
Doctoral advisor
Alfred Kleiner
Other academic advisors
Heinrich Friedrich Weber

Tables

· Scientific career › 1905 – <i>Annus Mirabilis</i> papers
"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light"
"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light"
Title (translated)
"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light"
Area of focus
Photoelectric effect
Received
18 March
Published
9 June
Significance
Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting that energy is exchanged only in discrete amounts (quanta). This idea was pivotal to the early development of quantum theory.
"On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat"
"On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat"
Title (translated)
"On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat"
Area of focus
Brownian motion
Received
11 May
Published
18 July
Significance
Explained empirical evidence for the atomic theory, supporting the application of statistical physics.
"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
Title (translated)
"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
Area of focus
Special relativity
Received
30 June
Published
26 September
Significance
Reconciled Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing changes to mechanics, resulting from analysis based on the independence of the speed of light from the motion of the observer. Discredited the concept of a "luminiferous ether".
"Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?"
"Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?"
Title (translated)
"Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?"
Area of focus
Matter–energy equivalence
Received
27 September
Published
21 November
Significance
Equivalence of matter and energy, E = mc2, the existence of "rest energy", and the basis of nuclear energy.
Title (translated)
Area of focus
Received
Published
Significance
"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light"
Photoelectric effect
18 March
9 June
Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting that energy is exchanged only in discrete amounts (quanta). This idea was pivotal to the early development of quantum theory.
"On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat"
Brownian motion
11 May
18 July
Explained empirical evidence for the atomic theory, supporting the application of statistical physics.
"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
Special relativity
30 June
26 September
Reconciled Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing changes to mechanics, resulting from analysis based on the independence of the speed of light from the motion of the observer. Discredited the concept of a "luminiferous ether".
"Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?"
Matter–energy equivalence
27 September
21 November
Equivalence of matter and energy, E = mc2, the existence of "rest energy", and the basis of nuclear energy.

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