Topzle Topzle

Ainu people

Updated: Wikipedia source

Ainu people

The Ainu are an indigenous ethnic group who reside in northern Japan and southeastern Russia, including Hokkaido and the Tōhoku region of Honshu, as well as the land surrounding the Sea of Okhotsk, such as Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, the Kamchatka Peninsula, and the Khabarovsk Krai. They have occupied these areas, known to them as "Ainu Mosir" (Ainu: アイヌモシㇼ, lit. 'the land of the Ainu'), since before the arrival of the modern Yamato and Russians. These regions are often referred to as Ezochi (蝦夷地) and its inhabitants as Emishi (蝦夷) in historical Japanese texts. Along with the Yamato and Ryukyuan ethnic groups, the Ainu people are one of the primary historic ethnic groups of Japan and are along with the Ryukyuans and Bonin Islanders one of the few ethnic minorities native to the Japanese archipelago. Official surveys of the known Ainu population in Hokkaido received 11,450 responses in 2023, and the Ainu population in Russia was estimated at 300 in 2021. Unofficial estimates in 2002 placed the total population in Japan at 200,000 or higher, as the near-total assimilation of the Ainu into Japanese society has resulted in many individuals of Ainu descent having no knowledge of their ancestry. The Ainu were subject to forced assimilation during the Japanese colonization of Hokkaido since at least the 18th century. Japanese assimilation policies in the 19th century around the Meiji Restoration included forcing Ainu peoples off their land. This, in turn, forced them to give up traditional ways of life such as subsistence hunting and fishing. Ainu people were not allowed to practice their religion and were placed into Japanese-language schools, where speaking the Hokkaido Ainu language was forbidden. In 1966, there were about 300 native Ainu speakers. In the 1980s, there were fewer than 100 native Ainu speakers, with only 15 using the language daily. The Hokkaido Ainu language is likely extinct today, as there remain no known native speakers. The other Ainu languages, Sakhalin Ainu and Kuril Ainu were declared extinct in the 20th century. In recent years, there have been increasing efforts to revitalize the Hokkaido Ainu language.

Infobox

Japan (Hokkaido)
11,450 surveyed in 2023
Russia (Kamchatka, Khabarovsk, Sakhalin)
300 (2021 census)

Tables

· Population › Subgroups
Hokkaido Ainu
Hokkaido Ainu
Subgroup
Hokkaido Ainu
Location
Hokkaido
Description
Hokkaido Ainu (the predominant community of Ainu in the world today): A Japanese census in 1916 returned 13,557 pure-blooded Ainu in addition to 4,550 multiracial individuals. A 2017 survey says the Ainu population in Hokkaido is about 13,000. It decreased sharply from 24,000 in 2006.
Population
13,000
Year
2017
Tokyo Ainu
Tokyo Ainu
Subgroup
Tokyo Ainu
Location
Tokyo
Description
Tokyo Ainu (a modern-age migration of Hokkaidō Ainu highlighted in a documentary film released in 2010): According to a 1989 survey, more than 10,000 Ainu live in the Tokyo metropolitan area.
Population
10,000
Year
1989
†Tohoku Ainu
†Tohoku Ainu
Subgroup
†Tohoku Ainu
Location
Tohoku
Description
Tohoku Ainu (from Honshū; no officially acknowledged population exists): Forty-three Ainu households scattered throughout the Tohoku region were reported during the 17th century. There are people who consider themselves descendants of Shimokita Ainu on the Shimokita Peninsula, while the people on the Tsugaru Peninsula are generally considered Yamato but may be descendants of Tsugaru Ainu after cultural assimilation.
Population
Extinct
Year
17th century
Sakhalin Ainu
Sakhalin Ainu
Subgroup
Sakhalin Ainu
Location
Sakhalin
Description
Sakhalin Ainu: Pure-blooded individuals may be surviving in Hokkaidō. From both Northern and Southern Sakhalin, a total of 841 Ainu were relocated to Hokkaidō in 1875 by Japan. Only a few in remote interior areas remained when the island was turned over to Russia. Even when Japan was granted Southern Sakhalin in 1905, only a handful returned. The Japanese census of 1905 counted only 120 Sakhalin Ainu (down from 841 in 1875, 93 in Karafuto, and 27 in Hokkaidō). The Soviet census of 1926 counted 5 Ainu, while several of their multiracial children were recorded as ethnic Nivkh, Slav, or Uilta. North Sakhalin: Only five pure-blooded individuals were recorded during the 1926 Soviet Census in Northern Sakhalin. Most of the Sakhalin Ainu (mainly from coastal areas) were relocated to Hokkaidō in 1875 by Japan. The few that remained (mainly in the remote interior) were mostly married to Russians, as can be seen from the works of Bronisław Piłsudski. Southern Sakhalin (Karafuto): Japanese rule until 1945. Japan evacuated almost all the Ainu to Hokkaidō after World War II. Isolated individuals might have remained on Sakhalin. In 1949, there were about 100 Ainu living on Soviet Sakhalin.
Population
100
Year
1949
†Northern Kuril Ainu
†Northern Kuril Ainu
Subgroup
†Northern Kuril Ainu
Location
Northern Kuril islands
Description
Northern Kuril Ainu (no known living population in Japan; existence is not recognized by the Russian government in Kamchatka Krai): Also known as Kurile in Russian records. They were under Russian rule until 1875; they first came under Japanese rule after the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875). The majority of the population was located on the island of Shumshu, with a few others on islands like Paramushir. Together, they numbered 221 in 1860. These individuals had Russian names, spoke Russian fluently, and were Russian Orthodox in religion. As the islands were given to the Japanese, more than a hundred Ainu fled to Kamchatka along with their Russian employers (where they were assimilated into the Kamchadal population). Only about half remained under Japanese rule. To derussify the Kurile, the entire population of 97 individuals was relocated to Shikotan in 1884, given Japanese names, and the children were enrolled in Japanese schools. Unlike the other Ainu groups, the Kurile failed to adjust to their new surroundings; by 1933, only 10 individuals survived (plus another 34 multiracial individuals). The last group of 20 individuals (including a few pure-blooded Ainu) was evacuated to Hokkaidō in 1941, where they soon vanished as a separate ethnic group.
Population
Extinct
Year
20th century
†Southern Kuril Ainu
†Southern Kuril Ainu
Subgroup
†Southern Kuril Ainu
Location
Southern Kuril islands
Description
Southern Kuril Ainu (no known living population): This group numbered almost 2,000 people (mainly in Kunashir, Iturup, and Urup) during the 18th century. In 1884, their population had decreased to 500. Around 50 individuals (mostly multiracial) who remained in 1941 were evacuated to Hokkaidō by the Japanese soon after World War II. The last full-blooded Southern Kuril Ainu was Suyama Nisaku, who died in 1956. The last of the tribe (partial ancestry), Tanaka Kinu, died on Hokkaidō in 1973.
Population
Extinct
Year
1973
†Kamchatka Ainu
†Kamchatka Ainu
Subgroup
†Kamchatka Ainu
Location
Kamchatka
Description
Kamchatka Ainu (no known living population): Known as Kamchatka Kurile in Russian records. They ceased to exist as a separate ethnic group after their defeat in 1706 by the Russians. Individuals were assimilated into the Kurile and Kamchadal ethnic groups. They were last recorded in the 18th century by Russian explorers.
Population
Extinct
Year
18th century
†Amur Valley Ainu
†Amur Valley Ainu
Subgroup
†Amur Valley Ainu
Location
Amur River (Eastern Russia)
Description
Amur Valley Ainu (probably none remain): A few individuals married to ethnic Russians and ethnic Ulchi were reported by Bronisław Piłsudski in the early 20th century. Only 26 pure-blooded individuals were recorded during the 1926 Russian Census in Nikolaevski Okrug (present-day Nikolayevsky District, Khabarovsk Krai). They were probably assimilated into the Slavic rural population. Although no one identifies as Ainu today in Khabarovsk Krai, there are a large number of ethnic Ulch with partial Ainu ancestry.
Population
Extinct
Year
20th century
Subgroup
Location
Description
Population
Year
Hokkaido Ainu
Hokkaido
Hokkaido Ainu (the predominant community of Ainu in the world today): A Japanese census in 1916 returned 13,557 pure-blooded Ainu in addition to 4,550 multiracial individuals. A 2017 survey says the Ainu population in Hokkaido is about 13,000. It decreased sharply from 24,000 in 2006.
13,000
2017
Tokyo Ainu
Tokyo
Tokyo Ainu (a modern-age migration of Hokkaidō Ainu highlighted in a documentary film released in 2010): According to a 1989 survey, more than 10,000 Ainu live in the Tokyo metropolitan area.
10,000
1989
†Tohoku Ainu
Tohoku
Tohoku Ainu (from Honshū; no officially acknowledged population exists): Forty-three Ainu households scattered throughout the Tohoku region were reported during the 17th century. There are people who consider themselves descendants of Shimokita Ainu on the Shimokita Peninsula, while the people on the Tsugaru Peninsula are generally considered Yamato but may be descendants of Tsugaru Ainu after cultural assimilation.
Extinct
17th century
Sakhalin Ainu
Sakhalin
Sakhalin Ainu: Pure-blooded individuals may be surviving in Hokkaidō. From both Northern and Southern Sakhalin, a total of 841 Ainu were relocated to Hokkaidō in 1875 by Japan. Only a few in remote interior areas remained when the island was turned over to Russia. Even when Japan was granted Southern Sakhalin in 1905, only a handful returned. The Japanese census of 1905 counted only 120 Sakhalin Ainu (down from 841 in 1875, 93 in Karafuto, and 27 in Hokkaidō). The Soviet census of 1926 counted 5 Ainu, while several of their multiracial children were recorded as ethnic Nivkh, Slav, or Uilta. North Sakhalin: Only five pure-blooded individuals were recorded during the 1926 Soviet Census in Northern Sakhalin. Most of the Sakhalin Ainu (mainly from coastal areas) were relocated to Hokkaidō in 1875 by Japan. The few that remained (mainly in the remote interior) were mostly married to Russians, as can be seen from the works of Bronisław Piłsudski. Southern Sakhalin (Karafuto): Japanese rule until 1945. Japan evacuated almost all the Ainu to Hokkaidō after World War II. Isolated individuals might have remained on Sakhalin. In 1949, there were about 100 Ainu living on Soviet Sakhalin.
100
1949
†Northern Kuril Ainu
Northern Kuril islands
Northern Kuril Ainu (no known living population in Japan; existence is not recognized by the Russian government in Kamchatka Krai): Also known as Kurile in Russian records. They were under Russian rule until 1875; they first came under Japanese rule after the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875). The majority of the population was located on the island of Shumshu, with a few others on islands like Paramushir. Together, they numbered 221 in 1860. These individuals had Russian names, spoke Russian fluently, and were Russian Orthodox in religion. As the islands were given to the Japanese, more than a hundred Ainu fled to Kamchatka along with their Russian employers (where they were assimilated into the Kamchadal population). Only about half remained under Japanese rule. To derussify the Kurile, the entire population of 97 individuals was relocated to Shikotan in 1884, given Japanese names, and the children were enrolled in Japanese schools. Unlike the other Ainu groups, the Kurile failed to adjust to their new surroundings; by 1933, only 10 individuals survived (plus another 34 multiracial individuals). The last group of 20 individuals (including a few pure-blooded Ainu) was evacuated to Hokkaidō in 1941, where they soon vanished as a separate ethnic group.
Extinct
20th century
†Southern Kuril Ainu
Southern Kuril islands
Southern Kuril Ainu (no known living population): This group numbered almost 2,000 people (mainly in Kunashir, Iturup, and Urup) during the 18th century. In 1884, their population had decreased to 500. Around 50 individuals (mostly multiracial) who remained in 1941 were evacuated to Hokkaidō by the Japanese soon after World War II. The last full-blooded Southern Kuril Ainu was Suyama Nisaku, who died in 1956. The last of the tribe (partial ancestry), Tanaka Kinu, died on Hokkaidō in 1973.
Extinct
1973
†Kamchatka Ainu
Kamchatka
Kamchatka Ainu (no known living population): Known as Kamchatka Kurile in Russian records. They ceased to exist as a separate ethnic group after their defeat in 1706 by the Russians. Individuals were assimilated into the Kurile and Kamchadal ethnic groups. They were last recorded in the 18th century by Russian explorers.
Extinct
18th century
†Amur Valley Ainu
Amur River (Eastern Russia)
Amur Valley Ainu (probably none remain): A few individuals married to ethnic Russians and ethnic Ulchi were reported by Bronisław Piłsudski in the early 20th century. Only 26 pure-blooded individuals were recorded during the 1926 Russian Census in Nikolaevski Okrug (present-day Nikolayevsky District, Khabarovsk Krai). They were probably assimilated into the Slavic rural population. Although no one identifies as Ainu today in Khabarovsk Krai, there are a large number of ethnic Ulch with partial Ainu ancestry.
Extinct
20th century

References

  1. Vovin (2008).
  2. "Reiwa 5-nen "Hokkaidō Ainu seikatsu jittai chōsa" no jisshi kekka ni tsuite (gaiyō)" 令和 5 年 「北海道アイヌ生活実態調査」の実施結果について（概要）
    https://www.pref.hokkaido.lg.jp/fs/1/0/6/5/3/1/6/7/_/R5%E5%AE%9F%E6%85%8B%E8%AA%BF%E6%9F%BB%E6%A6%82%E8%A6%81(%E5%AE%8C%E6%88%90%E7%89%88).pdf
  3. "2. Sostav gruppy naseleniya "ukazavshiye drugiye otvety o natsional'noy Prinadlezhnosti"" 2. Состав группы населения "указавшие другие ответы о национальной Принадлежности"
    https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab2_VPN2020.xlsx
  4. Ethnologue: Languages of the World
    https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/224749653
  5. SAPIENS
    https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/ainu-prejudice-pride/
  6. BBC
    https://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20200519-japans-forgotten-indigenous-people
  7. Shibatani (1990), p. 3.
  8. Poisson (2002), p. 5.
  9. Language Policies and Language Education: The Impact in East Asian Countries in the Next Decade
    https://archive.org/details/languagepolicies0000unse
  10. Hohmann (2008), p. 19.
  11. Sustainable Japan
    https://sustainable.japantimes.com/magazine/vol06/06-05
  12. Ethnologue (Free All)
    https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ain/
  13. stanfordrewired.com
    https://stanfordrewired.com/post/japan-restored-ainu-ai-pirika/
  14. Hudson (1999b), p. 208.
  15. Nakayama (2015), p. 20.
  16. Schlesinger (2017), p. 135.
  17. Hudson (1999b), p. 226.
  18. Zgusta (2015), p. 64.
  19. Nihon Kokugo Daijiten
  20. Documentation and Revitalisation of two Endangered Languages in Eastern Asia: Nivkh and Ainu
    https://dh-north.org/siberian_studies/publications/sikdegraafshiraishi.pdf
  21. The Dictionary of Asian Mythology
  22. Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity
  23. NOVA Online
    https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/hokkaido/ainu.html
  24. Nakamura 2010, p. 415; Stephan 1971, p. 21.
  25. "Dai 59-kai kōeki no min Ainu VII-moto to notatakai" 第59回 交易の民アイヌ VII 元との戦い
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110721151652/http://www.city.asahikawa.hokkaido.jp/files/hakubutsukagaku/museum/syuzo/59-tatakai/59-tatakai.html
  26. 公益社団法人北海道アイヌ協会
    https://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/
  27. Zgusta (2015), p. 96.
  28. Nakamura (2010), p. 415.
  29. Walker (2006), p. 133.
  30. Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle
    https://books.google.com/books?id=aU5hBMxNgWQC&pg=PA159
  31. Shina no kisai ni arawaretaru Kokuryuko karyuiki no dojin
    https://books.google.com/books?id=mWipQwAACAAJ
  32. The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus
    https://apjjf.org/2020/22/Morris-Suzuki.html
  33. A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581-1990
    https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&dq=chinese+god+motifs+cotton+iron+silk&pg=PA214
  34. Smith (2017), p. 83.
  35. Kim (2019), p. 81.
  36. Narangoa (2014), p. 295.
  37. Walker (2006), pp. 134–135.
  38. Sasaki (1999), pp. 87–89.
  39. Sasaki (1999), p. 87.
  40. (Shiro Sasaki, 'A History of the Far East Indigenous Peoples' Transborder Activities Between the Russian and Chinese Emp
  41. Walker 2007, p. 295.
  42. Nich-Ro kankei to Saharintō: Bakumatsu Meiji shonen no ryōdo mondai
  43. Walker (2001), p. 49–56, 61–71, 172–176.
  44. "Time Table of Sakhalin Island"
    https://web.archive.org/web/20151003010214/http://www.karafuto.com/timetab.html
  45. Walker 2001, pp. 143–144.
  46. Walker 2001, p. 141.
  47. Walker 2001, pp. 142–144.
  48. Walker (2006), pp. 134–136.
  49. Sasaki (1999), p. 88.
  50. Walker (2006), pp. 149–150.
  51. Ocean of Destiny: A concise History of the North Pacific, 1500–1978
    https://books.google.com/books?id=gIAOU9ltj48C&q=sakhalin
  52. Tahara 2018.
  53. Ainu and Indigenous Studies
    https://doi.org/10.14943%2F97142
  54. Critical Asian Studies
    https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14672715.2019.1665291
  55. The fabric of indigeneity: Ainu identity, gender, and settler colonialism in Japan
  56. Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity
  57. Howell (1997), p. 614.
  58. The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus
    https://apjjf.org/2020/22/Morris-Suzuki.html
  59. (Mamiya Rinzō (trans. and ed. John Harrison), 'Kita Ezo Zutsetsu or a Description of the Island of North Ezo by Mamiya R
  60. Sjöberg (1993), p. 116.
  61. March 1996, p. 90.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=ujht5Y_yQooC&q=%22Treaty+of+Saint+Petersburg%221875&pg=PA90
  62. Indigenous Minorities and Education: Australian and Japanese Perspectives on their Indigenous Peoples, the Ainu, Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders
  63. BBC News
    http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7437244.stm
  64. Siddle (1996), p. 51.
  65. Sjöberg (1993), p. 117.
  66. Encyclopedia of Modern Asia
  67. Journal of the Center for Northern Humanities
    https://hdl.handle.net/2115%2F42939
  68. Walker (2001), p. 233.
  69. Siddle (1996), p. 45.
  70. TalkingITGlobal
    http://www.tigweb.org/youth-media/panorama/article.html?ContentID=3609
  71. Futures
    https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0016-3287%2803%2900051-X
  72. China.org
    http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/bjrenquan/190878.htm
  73. Howell (2004), pp. 12–13.
  74. HMV Japan
    http://www.hmv.co.jp/news/article/605230042/
  75. In particular, Sea-girt Yezo : glimpses of missionary work in North Japan by Batchelor, John (Church Missionary Society
    https://archive.org/details/seagirtyezoglim00socigoog
  76. Grassroots Fascism: The War Experience of the Japanese People
    https://books.google.com/books?id=Dn0yBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA127
  77. Deconstructing and Reconstructing Ainu identity: From assimilation to recognition 1868-2008
    https://popjap.hypotheses.org/files/2013/03/Deconstructing_and_Reconstructing_Ainu_identity_Popjap.pdf
  78. Okada 2012, p. 2.
  79. Meyer 2011, p. 70.
  80. Mason 2012, p. 22.
  81. Tahara 2018, p. 153.
  82. PROSPECTS
    https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-013-9273-y
  83. Japan Times
    http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/08/29/national/first-nationwide-survey-ainu-discrimination-carried/
  84. The Japan Times
    https://archive.today/20220427061352/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/02/25/reference/japans-ainu-recognition-bill-mean-hokkaidos-indigenous-people/
  85. Mainichi Shimbun
    https://web.archive.org/web/20211017061006/http://mmdesign-jpn.la.coocan.jp/shoko/oguma15.htm
  86. Porter 2008, p. 202.
  87. "Shūgiin giin suzuki muneo-kun teishutsu senjūmin-zoku no teigi oyobi Ainu minzoku no senjūmin-zoku to shite no kenri kakuritsu ni muketa seifu no torikumi ni kansuru daisankai shitsumon ni taisuru tōben-sho" 衆議院議員鈴木宗男君提出先住民族の定義及びアイヌ民族の先住民族としての権利確立に向けた政府の取り組みに関する第三回質問に対する答弁書
    https://www.shugiin.go.jp/internet/itdb_shitsumon.nsf/html/shitsumon/b169373.htm
  88. Japanese Upper House
    https://web.archive.org/web/20250827064136/https://www.sangiin.go.jp/japanese/gianjoho/ketsugi/169/080606-2.html
  89. Japan Times
    http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2008/06/07/national/diet-officially-declares-ainu-indigenous/
  90. CNN
    https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/20/asia/japan-ainu-indigenous-peoples-bill-intl/index.html
  91. The Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics
    https://doi.org/10.1017%2Frep.2021.16
  92. Multicultural Japan: Palaeolithic to Postmodern
    https://books.google.com/books?id=XUw6kiX9LQ0C&pg=PA22
  93. Sato et al. (2009): "...the Satsumon people (a direct ancestoral lineage of the Ainu people)..."
  94. Ainu Cultural Foundation
    https://web.archive.org/web/20240208080838/https://www.ff-ainu.or.jp/web/learn/culture/together/files/rekishi_bunka.pdf
  95. Lee & Hasegawa (2013): "In this paper, we reconstructed spatiotemporal evolution of 19 Ainu language varieties, and the
  96. Proceedings of the Japan Academy. Series B, Physical and Biological Sciences
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3524296
  97. End of Okhotsk? A Peer Polity Interaction approach to the interaction, exchange and decline of a Northeast-Asian maritime culture on Hokkaido, Japan
    https://web.archive.org/web/20241203145823/https://studenttheses.universiteitleiden.nl/handle/1887/28236
  98. Siddle (2008), pp. 22–23.
  99. Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics
    https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-race-ethnicity-and-politics/article/ainu-and-indigenous-politics-in-japan-negotiating-agency-institutional-stability-and-change/4A9A317CFFE3F1A76A4A82736D7F1835
  100. Sato et al. (2021), pp. 2–4.
  101. Handbook of the Ainu Language
    https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9781501502859-003
  102. Fukuzawa (2022), pp. 4–5.
  103. Hudson (2022), p. 1.
  104. 日本考古学
    https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/nihonkokogaku1994/1/1/1_1_139/_article/-char/ja/
  105. de Boer et al. (2020), p. 11.
  106. de Boer et al. (2020), pp. 10–11.
  107. de Boer et al. (2020), p. 10.
  108. 株式会社帝国書院
    https://web.archive.org/web/20250906224458/https://www.teikokushoin.co.jp/junior/faq/detail/950/
  109. Japan Review
    https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0915-0986
  110. Cultural Heritage Online
    https://web.archive.org/web/20250910220339/https://bunka.nii.ac.jp/heritages/detail/507683
  111. Tanaka (2000).
  112. Hokkaidō utarikyōkai
    https://web.archive.org/web/20140426001838/http://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/about05.html
  113. Vovin (1993), p. 1, "The Ainu language, almost extinct nowadays, is located on Hokkaidô, the northernmost island of the
  114. Martin (2011).
  115. Miyaoka, Sakiyama & Krauss (2007).
  116. Teeter & Okazaki (2011).
  117. Shibatani (1990), pp. 3–5.
  118. omniglot.com
    http://www.omniglot.com/writing/ainu.htm
  119. Howell (2004).
  120. Encyclopædia Britannica
    https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Ainu
  121. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress
    https://www.jstor.org/stable/44144805
  122. Bureau of Land Management
    https://web.archive.org/web/20090225075127/http://www.blm.gov/education/00_resources/articles/Columbia_river_basin/posterback.html
  123. Sjöberg (1993).
  124. An archaeological approach to the origins of Ainu culture 考古学からみたアイヌ文化の起源
    https://www.academia.edu/36896280
  125. Japan Today
    https://japantoday.com/category/features/food/check-out-tokyos-only-ainu-restaurant
  126. www.hokkaidolikers.com
    https://web.archive.org/web/20200126181049/https://www.hokkaidolikers.com/en/articles/4068
  127. Encyclopedia of the Arctic
    https://books.google.com/books?id=Swr9BTI_2FEC&q=ainu+hunted+autumn+summer&pg=PA18
  128. Songs of Gods, Songs of Humans: The Epic Tradition of the Ainu
    https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt13x0q8v
  129. Living Together: Minority People and Disadvantaged Groups in Japan
    https://books.google.com/books?id=GeY2yzunY98C&q=ainu+ezo+deer+rabbit+fox+raccoon&pg=PA8
  130. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania
    https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&q=ainu+ezo+deer+salmon&pg=PA35
  131. Politics of Occupation-Centred Practice: Reflections on Occupational Engagement Across Cultures
    https://books.google.com/books?id=6Z0C6yH6bZYC&q=ainu+sea+eagles+ravens&pg=PA112
  132. Sjöberg (1993), p. 54.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=tePeAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA54
  133. Takahashi (2006), "The Ainu hunted sea-otters on Ulup Island where the animals lived, or obtained them by trading with t
  134. Takahashi (2006), "[...] there is not much written about the Japanese fur trade, though some writers mention it as part
  135. Landor (2012), p. 24.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=6JQMmDXI9pQC
  136. Medical Toxicology of Natural Substances: Foods, Fungi, Medicinal Herbs, Plants, and Venomous Animals
    https://books.google.com/books?id=aTTBPedwFfAC&q=ainu+arrows+poison+surku&pg=PT1785
  137. Advances in Marine Biology
    https://books.google.com/books?id=fUVYsxzBcHQC&q=ainu+stingray&pg=PA62
  138. Poisson (2002), p. 32.
  139. Batchelor (1901), p. 116.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=f3EIAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA116
  140. Walker (2006), p. 91.
  141. Siddle (1996), p. 85.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=W5DKfJsPv2sC&pg=PA85
  142. Racism: A Global Reader
    https://books.google.com/books?id=LxkoW4AWfoQC&q=ainu+hunt+deer+cliff&pg=PA44
  143. ainu-museum.or.jp
    https://web.archive.org/web/20190514051936/http://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/en/study/eng04.html
  144. ainu-center.hm.pref.hokkaido.lg.jp
    https://ainu-center.hm.pref.hokkaido.lg.jp/13_01_013.htm
  145. Ancient Japan
    https://books.google.com/books?id=6z1vkF0xzHcC&q=matanpushi&pg=PA39
  146. Fitzhugh & Dubreuil (1999), p. 107.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=4oRxAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA107
  147. Tribal: The Magazine of Tribal Art
    https://books.google.com/books?id=BtszAQAAIAAJ&q=emush
  148. Ainu Museum
    https://web.archive.org/web/20130123224933/http://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/en/study/eng08.html
  149. Fitzhugh & Dubreuil (1999), p. 158, "Some glass beads were brought to the Ainu through trade with the Asian continent, b
    https://books.google.com/books?id=4oRxAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA158
  150. Batchelor (1901), p. 223.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=f3EIAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA223
  151. Popular Science
    https://books.google.com/books?id=iiADAAAAMBAJ&q=ainu+marriage+house&pg=PA85
  152. Poisson (2002), p. 35.
  153. Batchelor (1901), p. 226.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=f3EIAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA226
  154. Early European Writings on Ainu Culture: Religion and Folklore
    https://books.google.com/books?id=sILrJPM4DFAC&q=ainu+decoction+alder&pg=RA1-PA110
  155. Poisson (2002), p. 31.
  156. Landor (2012), p. 294.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=6JQMmDXI9pQC
  157. Fitzhugh & Dubreuil (1999), p. 320, "Ainu women's underclothes were called mour, literally "deer," a sort of one-piece d
    https://books.google.com/books?id=4oRxAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA320
  158. Ainu Life and Legends
    https://books.google.com/books?id=6cLYAAAAMAAJ&q=%22pon+kut%22
  159. Encyclopædia Britannica
    https://web.archive.org/web/20250627022420/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ainu
  160. Ashkenazy 2003, pp. 191–192.
  161. Ashkenazy 2003, pp. 198–199.
  162. National Ainu Museum
    https://web.archive.org/web/20181124020805/http://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/en/study/eng10.html
  163. Norbert Richard Adami: Religion und Schaminismus der Ainu auf Sachalin (Karafuto), Bonn 1989, p. 40-42.
  164. The Archaeologist
    https://web.archive.org/web/20250815114429/https://www.thearchaeologist.org/blog/ainu-history-of-the-indigenous-people-of-japan
  165. Folk Traditions in Japanese Art
  166. "Indigenous Archaeology of the Ainu: Shifting from Archaeological site to Native Property"
    https://www.jspsusa.org/FORUM2012/presentation/2-1_Kato.pdf
  167. Smithsonian Magazine
    https://web.archive.org/web/20250820061511/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-bear-worshipping-group-in-japan-fought-for-cultural-relevance-180965281/
  168. American Ethnologist
    https://www.jstor.org/stable/643430
  169. Batchelor (1901), pp. 51–52.
  170. 立命館大学
    https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192133/http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/re/k-rsc/lcs/kiyou/19-1/RitsIILCS_19.1pp.43-55Fumoto.pdf
  171. 日本とロシアの研究者の目から見るサハリン・樺太の歴史
    https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200935/http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no11/potapova.pdf
  172. UNESCO
    https://web.archive.org/web/20250826043016/https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/silk-road-themes/intangible-cultural-heritage/traditional-ainu-dance
  173. "She Joins the Ancestral Host: Death, Mourning, and Burial in Ainu Culture"
    https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~rfrey/PDF/101/She-Joins-Ancestral-Host.pdf
  174. www.tota.world
    https://www.tota.world/article/65/
  175. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry
    https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.1478670
  176. Kamikawa Ainu in Coexistence with Kamuy
    https://daisetsu-kamikawa-ainu.jp/en/story/kamuinomi/
  177. www.ff-ainu.or.jp
    https://www.ff-ainu.or.jp/web/english/details/post-5.html
  178. www.britannica.com
    https://www.britannica.com/place/Hokkaido
  179. Asahi Shimbun
    https://web.archive.org/web/20080519132008/http://www.asahi.com/national/update/0516/TKY200805160292.html
  180. "Center for Ainu & Indigenous Studies"
    http://www.cais.hokudai.ac.jp/english/
  181. 2kamuymintara.com
    http://www.2kamuymintara.com/film/eng/top.htm
  182. 2kamuymintara.com
    http://www.2kamuymintara.com/film/groups.htm
  183. arcticcentre.org
    https://www.arcticcentre.org/EN/News?ln=nxqdhzo3&id=c6d2c468-e74a-49e1-8412-89fdae3b22f9
  184. japan-guide.com
    https://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2244.html
  185. Levin (2001), pp. 445–446.
  186. Levin (1999).
  187. Levin (2001), pp. 419, 447.
  188. Levin (2001), p. 443.
  189. Levin (1999), p. 442.
  190. Levin (2008).
  191. Asian–Pacific Law & Policy Journal
    http://blog.hawaii.edu/aplpj/files/2011/11/APLPJ_01.1_hitchingham_masako.pdf
  192. Levin (2001), p. 467.
  193. "Database of Registered National Cultural Properties"
    https://kunishitei.bunka.go.jp/heritage/detail/412/00003550
  194. Levin & Tsunemoto, Oklahoma Law Review.
  195. Siddle (1996).
  196. Global Legal Monitor
    https://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/?disp3_l20540633_text
  197. ainu-org.jp
    https://web.archive.org/web/20130710182919/http://www.ainu-org.jp/english/index.html
  198. Japan Times
    https://web.archive.org/web/20120427092145/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20111031a5.html
  199. Asahi Shimbun
    https://web.archive.org/web/20120709010224/http://www.asahi.com/national/update/1029/TKY201110290538.html
  200. Japan Times
    https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/02/25/reference/japans-ainu-recognition-bill-mean-hokkaidos-indigenous-people/
  201. Upopoy National Ainu Museum and Park
    https://web.archive.org/web/20190528125317/https://ainu-upopoy.jp/en/
  202. Outlook Traveller
    https://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/travelnews/story/70461/upopoy-museum-in-japan-promotes-ainu-culture
  203. submitted by Ainu Association of Hokkaido, Japan 2008-9
  204. Intangible Cultural Heritage
    https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/traditional-ainu-dance-00278
  205. The New York Times
    https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/02/world/asia/japan-ainu-fishing.html
  206. 「昭和21年（1946年）12月19日、東京でデレヴャンコ中将と日本における連合国軍最高司令官代表ポール・J・ミューラー中将が、ソ連領とのその支配下にある地域からの日本人捕虜と民間人の本国送還問題に関する協定に署名した。協定では、日本人捕虜
    https://archive.today/20070530090801/http://www.city.kitami.lg.jp/650-03/100/nupunkesi100.htm
  207. Kamchadal'skiye ayny dobivayutsya priznaniya
    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IcIErWxe16k
  208. Kamchatka-Etno
    https://web.archive.org/web/20120623191226/http://www.kamchatka-etno.ru/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=85&Itemid=95
  209. 5-tv.ru
    http://www.5-tv.ru/news/37800/
  210. russiaregionpress.ru
    https://web.archive.org/web/20161229005214/http://pk.russiaregionpress.ru/archives/4889
  211. severdv.ru
    https://web.archive.org/web/20160325174941/http://severdv.ru/news/show/?id=52022&r=27&p=41
  212. nazaccent.ru
    http://nazaccent.ru/interview/13/
  213. Сегодня.ру
    http://www.segodnia.ru/content/105359
  214. Rossiyskaya Gazeta
    http://www.rg.ru/2008/04/03/reg-dvostok/ainu.html
  215. The Independent
    https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/ainu-people-lay-ancient-claim-to-kurile-islands-the-hunters-and-fishers-who-lost-their-land-to-the-russians-and-japanese-are-gaining-the-confidence-to-demand-their-rights-reports-terry-mccarthy-1552879.html
  216. Kamchatskoye Vremya
    http://kamtime.ru/old/archive/08_12_2004/13.shtml
  217. indigenous.ru
    http://www.indigenous.ru/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=894
  218. Voice of Russia
    https://web.archive.org/web/20120305074855/http://english.ruvr.ru/radio_broadcast/2249159/49638669.html
  219. Nikkei Asian Review
    https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics-Economy/International-Relations/Russian-Ainu-leader-calls-for-greater-respect/
  220. Demoscope Weekly
    http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php?reg=o
  221. Demoscope Weekly
    http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php?reg=113
  222. "Hokkaidō Ainu kyōkai" 北海道アイヌ協会
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110518015015/http://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/about03.html
  223. Science Council of Japan
    http://www.scj.go.jp/ja/info/kohyo/pdf/kohyo-21-h133-1.pdf
  224. 「しかしアキヅキトシユキは実際には1975年の樺太・千島交換条約の際に千島に住んでいた90人のアレウト族の末裔だったのではないかと推測している。そのアイヌがどこのだれのことを示しているのかということに関してそれ以上の情報はでてこなかった」
  225. Howell (2005).
  226. Ryūbō: Nichiro ni owareta Kitachishima Ainu
  227. 日本経済新聞
    https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXMZO34630960X20C18A8CR8000/
  228. Siddle (1996), p. 92.
  229. Harukor: An Ainu Woman's Tale
    https://books.google.com/books?id=PhVpRXZlw9UC&pg=PA7
  230. Joetsu University of Education
    https://web.archive.org/web/20110722071748/http://www.juen.ac.jp/shakai/kawanisi/research/touhoku/touhoku_6.html
  231. Howell (2005), p. 187.
  232. "Vsesoyuznaya perepis' naseleniya 1926 goda. Natsional'nyy sostav naseleniya po regionam RSFSR. dal'ne-Vostochnyi: Saxalinskii okrug" Всесоюзная перепись населения 1926 года. Национальный состав населения по регионам РСФСР. дальне-Восточныи: Саxалинскии округ
    http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_26.php?reg=1420
  233. Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas: Maps
    https://books.google.com/books?id=glU0vte5gSkC&pg=PA1010
  234. Japan's Competing Modernities: Issues in Culture and Democracy, 1900–1930
    https://books.google.com/books?id=-I_pId0AuhIC&pg=PA163
  235. The Indigenous Ainu of Japan and the 'Northern Territories' Dispute
    https://hdl.handle.net/10012%2F2765
  236. Piłsudski (2004), p. 816.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=NX0W2N8pgWQC&pg=PA816
  237. Vsesoyuznaya perepis' naseleniya 1926 goda. Natsional'nyy sostav naseleniya po regionam RSFSR. dal'ne-Vostochnyi: Nikolayevskii okrug
    http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_26.php?reg=1410
  238. Shaman: an international journal for Shamanistic research, Volumes 4–5, p.155.[verification needed][title missing]
  239. Piłsudski (2004), p. 37.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=NX0W2N8pgWQC&pg=PA37
  240. SBS
    https://www.sbs.com.au/language/japanese/en/podcast-episode/times-have-changed-pop-culture-powers-revival-of-japans-indigenous-ainu-culture/kockwwagx
  241. Journal of East Asian Cultures
    https://doi.org/10.38144%2FTKT.2025.1.6
  242. Spiker (2020), p. 138.
  243. War as Entertainment and Contents Tourism in Japan
    https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003239970-14
  244. Language, Culture and Society
    https://doi.org/10.1075%2Flcs.21020.ito
  245. Language & Communication
    https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.langcom.2022.06.013
  246. SoraNews24
    https://soranews24.com/2016/04/04/satoru-nodas-golden-kamuy-manga-series-wins-the-2016-manga-taisho-award/
  247. Anime, Religion, and Theology
  248. Spiker (2020), pp. 139–140.
  249. The Mary Sue
    https://www.themarysue.com/hiromu-arakawas-fma-part-2/
  250. Newtype USA
    https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1541-4817
  251. "Ainu Mosir the Movie"
    http://ainumosir-movie.jp/
  252. Tribeca Film
    https://web.archive.org/web/20201117062536/https://tribecafilm.com/films/ainu-mosir-2020
  253. The Japan Times
    https://web.archive.org/web/20251012022318/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2025/10/11/digital/ghost-of-yotei-review-game-hokkaido-tsushima/
  254. GamesRadar+
    https://www.gamesradar.com/games/open-world/ghost-of-yotei-devs-know-how-ignorant-we-were-about-japanese-culture-but-as-with-ghost-of-tsushima-theyve-had-cultural-advisors-to-help-deliver-a-respectful-representation-of-japan/
  255. IGN
    https://www.ign.com/articles/ghost-of-yotei-director-reveals-efforts-to-respectfully-portray-the-ainu-indigenous-people-of-japan
  256. CBC Radio
    https://www.cbc.ca/radio/day6/ghost-of-yotei-review-1.7648590
Image
Source: —
Tip: Wheel or +/− to zoom, drag to pan, Esc to close.